Bacterial Cell Structure

Microbiology
Unit I

Muhammad Iqbal
KMU
 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lecture the students will be able to:
• Define Bacteria
• Give characteristics of bacterial cell
• Classify Bacteria on the basis of:
a. Morphology
b. Nutrition
c. Temperature
d. PH
• Give some examples of Gram +ve and
Gram –ve bacteria
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
• Bacteria are prokaryotic unicellular organisms
• DNA and RNA both are present
• Division (reproduction) by Binary fission
• No mitochondria and nuclear membrane
• Rigid cell wall containing peptidoglycan

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Shape and size
Three principal shapes of bacteria exist:
• Round (cocci; singular, coccus)
• Rods (bacilli; singular, bacillus)
• Curved or twisted rods (spirilla; singular,
spirillum)

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Cocci Bacilli Spirilla 4
• Typical bacteria measure 2-8 m in length and 0.2-2
m in width.
• Form associations such as chains, clusters, and
tetrads.

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 http://biology.homeomagnet.com/classification-of-bacteria/

• In the year 1872 scientist Cohn classified bacteria to 4 major

types depending on their shapes are as follow: –
• 1) Cocci: These types of bacteria are unicellular, spherical or
elliptical shape. Either they may remain as a single cell or may
aggregate together for various configurations. They are as
follow:
i)Monococcus: – they are also called micrococcus and
represented by single, discrete round cell. Example:
Micrococcus flavus.
ii)Diplococcus: – the cell of the Diplococcus divides ones in a
particular plane and after division, the cells remain attached
to each other. Example: – Diplococcus pneumonia.
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• iii) Streptococcus: – here the cells divide repeatedly in one plane to
form chain of cells. Example: – Streptococcus pyogenes.
iv)Tetracoccus: – this consists of four round cells, which defied in
two planes at a right angles to one another. Example: – Gaffkya
tetragena.
v)Staphylococcus: – here the cells divided into three planes
forming a structured like bunches of grapes giving and irregular
configuration. Example: – Staphylococcus aureus.
vi)Sarcina: -in this case this cells divide in three planes but they
form a cube like configuration consisting of eight or sixteen cells but
they have a regular shape. Example: –Sarcina lutea.
2)Bacilli: – this are rod shaped or cylindrical bacteria which either
remain singly or in pairs. Example: –Bacillus cereus.
3)Vibro: -the vibro are the curved, comma shaped bacteria and
represented by a single genus. Example: – Vibro cholerae.
4)Spirilla: – this type of bacteria are spiral or spring like with
multiple curvature and terminal flagella. Example: –Spirillum 7
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volutans.
 Aerotolerance
• Strict Aerobes: Bacteria that grow only in the presence
molecular oxygen.
e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Strict Anaerobes: are which can grow only in the
absence of molecular oxygen.
e.g. Clostridium tetani
• Facultative anaerobes: They can grow both in the
presence as well as absence of molecular oxygen. E.g.
Escherichia coli

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Bacterial Structure

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 A typical bacterial features
• Flagella (Singular: flagellum) are thread like
structures for locomotion in most motile bacteria.
• Pili (singular: pilus) Appendages on bacterial cell
Shorter than flagella used for transfer of genetic
material from one to another (sex pilli)
• Fimbriae (singular: Fimbria) Appendages on
bacterial cell Shorter than pili used for
attachment to contact surfaces

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• On the basis of flagella the bacteria can be classified: –
i)Atrichos: – These bacteria has no flagella. Example: -
Corynebacterium diptherae.
ii)Monotrichous: – One flagellum is attached to one end of
the bacteria cell. Example: – Vibro cholera.
iii)Lophotrichous: – Bunch of flagella is attached to one end
of the bacteria cell. Example: – Pseudomonas.
iv)Amphitrichous: – Bunch of flagella arising from both end
of the bacteria cell. Example: – Rhodospirillum rubrum.
v)Peritrichous : – The flagella are evenly distributed
surrounding the entire bacterial cell. Example: -Bacillus.

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• Capsule - Made of polysaccharides which
protects bacteria from phagocytes.
• Cell wall:
• Made up of peptidoglycan.
– Responsible for the rigidity of bacterial cell.
• Cell Membrane:
– Inner to cell wall, there is a delicate cytoplasmic
membrane which surrounds the cytoplasm.

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• Ribosome made up of RNA and protein. It is a factory of
protein synthesis.
• Mesosome An invagination of cell membrane which helps
in cell division.
• Nucleoid (Genetic material) Unlike virus, bacteria have
both DNA and RNA. It contains genetic charateristics.
• Periplasm is the space between cytoplasmic membrane
and cell wall which contains hydrolytic and Beta lactamase
enzyme to degrade substances like penicillin.
• Plasmid A fragment of extrachromosomal DNA segment
which contains different genes for resistance to antibiotic.

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• Endospore – The process of formation of spore is
known as sporulation.
Bacillus species can form spores.
It is produced within the cell, one spore is formed within
a single bacterial cell.
• It is resistant to heat, UV light, most chemicals and
desiccation.
• When conditions are favorable, the spore germinates
and produces a fresh vegetative cell.

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 Endotoxin
Toxin which is released only upon
lysis of bacterial cell. Found only in G –ve.
It is heat-resistant

 Exotoxin
Toxin released by Viable bacterial cells.
Found mostly in G +ve but in some G –ve as
well.
It is heat-labile

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M U 17
 Nutrition based Classification
Carbon Source:
Microorganisms are classified into two groups on the basis of
sources of carbon as autotrophs and hetrotrophs.
Autotrophs are the microorganisms which derive carbon from
inorganic compounds like CO2.
Hetrotrophs are the microorganisms which derive carbon
from different organic compounds like sugar, alcohol etc.

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 Cont…
Energy Source:
Microorganisms depend upon different sources of
energy. The organisms which depend on sunlight as a
major source of energy are called phototrophs.
Other organisms which use chemicals as a source of
energy are called chemotrophs.
Autotrophs may either use sunlight or chemical
compouds as energy source; they are called
photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs
respectively.

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Likewise, hetrotrophs may either use sunlight or
chemical compouds as energy source; they are
called photohetrotrophs and chemohetrotrophs
respectively.

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 Temperature Based Classification

Regarding temperature they are grouped into

three categories

1 Psychrophiles Love to grow in the range of 0 0C - 25

0C

2 Mesophiles Love to grow between 25 0C - 40 0C

3 Thermophiles Love to grow in the range of 40 0C -
85 0C
Some species even grow at 98 0C as in hot sulfur
spring
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 http://biology.homeomagnet.com/classification-of-bacteria/

• Psychrophilic bacteria: -These type of bacteria grows just

above the freezing temperature, they can cause
contamination of food stored in the refrigerator. Example: -
Pseudomonas.
ii)Mesophilic bacteria: -These bacteria grow at normal
temperature in the water bodies, food products, liberate gas
and cause change in texture. Example: -Lactobacillus.
iii)Thermophilic bacteria: – These types of bacteria can
survive at higher temperature and can withstand the
pasteurization temperature. Example: – Clostridium, Bacillus.
iv)Thermophilic bacteria: – These types of bacteria can
survive pasteurization but cannot grow at the pasteurization
temperature. Example: – Micrococcus, Streptococcus.

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 PH Based Classification
Regarding PH they are grouped into three
categories

1 Acidophiles Love to grow in the range

of PH between 0-6
2 Neutrophiles Love to grow between
6-8 PH
3- Alkalophiles Love to grow at PH
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 Beneficial and Harmful Bacteria
• Truly speaking, all of the bacteria are potentially
harmful. Any how, about 97 % bacteria are
beneficial and 3 % harmful. Beneficial bacteria
include normal flora and other industrial and
environmental bacteria.

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 Some Medically Important Bacteria
1- Gram Positive:
• Streptococcus—causes pneumonia, pharyngitis, cellulitis
• Staphylococcus—abscess of skin and other organs, Food
poisoning
• Bacillus (spore forming rods)—causes Anthrax
• Clostridium (spore forming rods)— Tetanus, botulism
• Corynebacterium—diphtheria
• Listeria—Meningitis
• Actinomyces— Actinomycosis

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 Cont…
2- Gram Negative:
• Neisseria—Gonorrhea, Meningitis
• Yersinia—Plague
• Escherichia—Urinary tract infection, diarrhea
• Salmonella—Typhoid fever
• Vibrio—Cholera
• Shigella—Enterocolitis
• Haemophilus—Meningitis
• Bordetella—Whooping cough
• Pseudomonas—Pneumonia, UTI
• Bacteroides—Peritonitis
3- Acid Fast
• Mycobacterium—Tuberculosis, Leprasy

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Concept of Asepsis
Microbiology
Unit-IV

Muhammad Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives
At the end, the students will be able to:
• Define key terms.
• Identify the six components of chain of infection.
• Explain examples of ways that infection may occur
• Describe factors that increase the risk of infection in
various settings.
• Discuss the role of health care personnel and health
in infection control.
Chain of Infection
 Chain of Infection

• It is a model used to understand the infection

process
• Each link represents step in transmission of
infection
• Each link has to be present in order for an
infection to occur
1 - The Infectious Agent
-Any disease-causing microorganism (Bacteria,
Virus, Fungus, etc.)
2 - The Reservoir
-Where a microorganism normally lives and
reproduces
Examples of reservoirs:
Humans, Animals, Water, Food
3 - The Portal of Exit
Route of escape of the pathogen from the
reservoir
Examples of portals of exit:
Flu or cold --- mucous secretions
Hepatitis A --- Oro-fecal

4 - The Route of Transmission (Spread)

The way the pathogen gets from the reservoir to the new
host
Examples of rout of transmission
From respiratory tract (nose, mouth) secretions of infected
 Droplet Transmission

Agent is coughed or sneezed out into the air

and floats on droplets
 Direct Spread by Droplets

• Close contact with infected person (<3 ft)

• Infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, sings
• Droplets land directly on mucous membranes
(eyes, nose, mouth) of susceptible person
Indirect Spread by Droplets

Someone touches
contaminated object
5 - The Portal of Entry
The Route through which the pathogen enters its new host

Examples:
Sexual
Inhale germs contac
t

Ingestio
Breaks in Protective Skin n
6 - The Susceptible Host
A person who can get sick when exposed
to a disease causing pathogen
 Example of How Infection Occurs
• Example of common cold
• Any infection follows the same steps as that of chain
of infection starting from infectious agent to
susceptible host.
• A flu virus is deposited into the front of the nasal
passages by contaminated fingers or by droplets
from coughs and sneezes.
• Small doses of virus (1-30 particles) are sufficient to
produce infection.
• The virus is then transported to the back of the nose
and onto the adenoid area.
Role of Health Care Personnel in Infection
Control
 Learning Objectives
At the end of this, the learners will be able to:
• Recognize patient safety as an important nursing
responsibility in health care systems.
• Apply required knowledge in preventing and/or
minimizing infection.
• Perform appropriate behaviors required to prevent
health care associated infections.
• Demonstrate required competence to provide
patients with safe care.
 Introduction to Patient Safety

• Definition: Patient safety is a discipline in the

health care sector that applies safety science
methods toward the goal of achieving a
trustworthy system of health care delivery.
• Patient safety is also an attribute of health care
systems; it minimizes the incidence and impact of
adverse events and maximizes recovery from
health problems.
 Introduction to Patient Safety Cont…

• Adverse medical events are widespread and

preventable.
• Much unnecessary harm is caused by health-
care errors and system failures.
– Ex. 1: Hospital acquired infections from poor hand-
washing.
– Ex. 2: Complications from administering wrong
medication.
 Goal of Patient Safety

• Prevent and/or minimize the adverse events

and eliminate preventable harm in health care.
• All health care professionals including nurses
are responsible for ensuring patient safety
 Global Infection Problems
According to WHO (2005),
• On average, 8.7% of hospital patients suffer health
care-associated infections (HAI).
• In developed countries: 5-10%
• In developing countries:
– Risk of HAI: 2-20 times higher
– HAI may affect more than 25% of patients
• At any one time, over 1.4 million people
worldwide suffer from infections acquired while in
hospital.
 Health Care-Associated Infections (HAI)
According to WHO:
• HAI is also called “nosocomial”.
• HAI is defined as:
– an infection acquired in hospital by a patient who was
admitted for a reason other than that infection.
– an infection occurring in a patient in a hospital or
other health-care facility in whom the infection was
not present or incubating at the time of admission.
– How would you come to know this ????
 Impacts of Nosocomial Infections (HAI)

HAI can:
• Increase patients’ suffering.
• Lead to permanent disability.
• Lead to death.
• Prolong hospital stay.
• Increase need for a higher level of care.
• Increase the costs to patients and hospitals.
 Preventing infections

Requires health care providers who have:

– Knowledge of common infections and their
vectors
– An attitude of cooperation and commitment
– Skills necessary to provide safe care
 Required Knowledge
• Knowledge of the extent of the problem;
• Knowledge of the main causes, modes of
transmission, and types of infections.
 Required Attitudes

Being an effective team player.

Commitment to preventing HAIs

 Required Skills
• Apply universal precautions*
• Use personal protection methods
• Know what to do if exposed
• Encourage others to use universal precautions
• Report breaks in technique that increase
patient risks
• Observe patients for signs and symptoms of
infection
 Universal precautions
• "Universal precautions," as defined by CDC,
are a set of precautions designed to prevent
transmission of pathogens when providing first
aid or health care.
• Under universal precautions, blood and certain
body fluids of all patients are considered
potentially infectious.
• Retrieved from CDC web site
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/bp_universal_p
recautions.html
 One more important thing!

Protect Yourself
Be sure you have been immunized against
certain infectious diseases.
 Main Sources of Infection
• Person to person via hands of health-care
providers, patients, and visitors
• Personal clothing and equipment (e.g.
Stethoscopes, flashlights etc.)
• Environmental contamination
• Airborne transmission
• Hospital staff who are carriers
 Main Routes for infections
• The following four types of infections account for
more than 80% of all health care-associated
infections:
• Urinary tract infections (UTI)
– Catheter-associated UTIs are the most frequent,
accounting for about 35% of all HAI.
• Surgical infections: about 20% of all HAI
• Bloodstream infections associated with the use
of an intravascular device: about 15% of all HAI
• Pneumonia associated with ventilators: about
15% of HAI
 Four Ways to Prevent HAI
1. Maintain cleanliness of the hospital.
2. Personal attention to hand washing before and
after every contact with a patient or object.
3. Use personal protective equipment whenever
indicated.
4. Use and dispose of sharps safely.
 Prevention through Hand-washing
• Hand washing: the single most important
intervention before and after patient contact.
• Required knowledge and skills:
– How to clean hands
– Rationale for choice of clean hand practice
– Techniques for hand hygiene
– Protect hands from contaminants
– Promote adherence to hand hygiene guidelines

Remember medical and surgical hand wash

 Five moments for hand hygiene
• Before patient contact
• Before an aseptic task
• After body fluid exposure even if wearing
gloves!
• After patient contact
• After contact with patient surroundings
Your 5 moments for HAND HYGIENE
 Resources for Correct Hand washing
Procedures

• Your Five Moments for Hand Hygiene

• http://www.who.int/gpsc/tools/5momentsHandHygiene_A3.pdf
• How to handrub? How to handwash?
• http://www.who.int/gpsc/tools/GPSC-HandRub-Wash.pdf
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• Gloves, gown, goggles, apron, and face mask

• Health care workers should wear a face mask,
eye protection and a gown if there is the
potential for blood or other bodily fluids to
splash.
 PPE-----Gloves
Gloves must be worn for:
• all invasive procedures
• contact with sterile sites
• contact with non-intact skin or mucous membranes
• all activities assessed as having a risk of exposure to
blood, bodily fluids, secretions and excretions, and
handling sharps or contaminated instruments.
Hands should be washed before and after gloving
 PPE----Face Mask
• Mask should be worn
– if an airborne infection is suspected or confirmed
– to protect an immune compromised patient.
 Safe Use and Disposal of Sharps
• Keep handling to a minimum
• Do not recap needles; bend or break after use
• Discard each needle into a sharps container at
the point of use
• Do not overload a bin if it is full
• Do not leave a sharp bin in the reach of children
 Required Performance
Nursing students need to:
• apply universal precautions
• be immunized against Hepatitis B
• use personal protection methods
• know what to do if exposed
• encourage others to use universal precautions
Act to Minimize Spread of Infection

Before contact with each and every patient:

– clean hands before touching a patient
– clean hands before an aseptic task
Act to Minimize Spread of Infection

After contact with each and every patient:

– clean hands after any risk of exposure to
body fluids
– clean hands after actual patient contact
– clean hands after contact with patient
surroundings
Encourage Others to Participate in
Infection Control

Students may routinely observe staff who:

– apply inadequate technique in hand-washing
– fail to wash hands
– routinely violate correct infection control
procedures
 Summary
• Know the main guidelines in each of the clinical
environments you are assigned.
• Accept responsibility for minimizing opportunities
for infection transmission.
• Let staff know if supplies are inadequate or
depleted.
• Educate patients and families/visitors about clean
hands and infection transmission.
• Ensure patients’ safety
 References
• World Health Organization. (2010). WHO Patient Safety Curriculum
Guide for Medical Schools.
• World Health Organization. (2010). Topic 1: What is patient safety?
• World Health Organization. (2010). Topic 9: Minimizing infection
through improved infection control.
• Emanuel, L., Berwick, D., Conway, J., Combes, J., Hatlie, M.,
Leape, L., Reason, J., Schyve, P., Vincent, C., & Walton, M.
(2008). What exactly is patient safety? Advances in Patient Safety,
Vol. 1: Assessment. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=aps2v1&par
t=advances-emanuel-berwick_110
• Burke, J. P. (2003). Infection control — A problem for patient
safety. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348, p. 651-656.
 Further study guide lines
• http://www.who.int/patientsafety/educ
ation/curriculum/en/index.html
 Concept of
isolation

Microbiology Unit-V

M. Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives:
By the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:
• Define Isolation.
• Identify types of Isolation.
• Relate isolation to the chain of infection cycle.
• Identify nursing responsibilities in each type of
isolation.
 Isolation
• A state of separation between persons or
groups
• Definition: In health care, isolation refers to
various measures taken to prevent contagious
diseases from being spread from a patient to
other patients, health care workers, and
visitors, or from others to a particular patient.
 Types of isolation:
• Strict isolation
• Respiratory isolation
• Contact isolation
• Enteric Isolation
• Protective Isolation
• Body Fluid Isolation
Types of Isolation Indications Requirements

1. Strict Isolation -highly transmissible Private rooms

diseases by direct Gowns, mask, gloves,
contact and airborne hand washing
routes of transmission. Double bagged

techniques for soiled

articles.

2. Respiratory Isolation - droplet transmission Private rooms

Gowns, mask, gloves,
hand washing.
Patients with the same

organism generally may

share room.
Labeled plastic bags are

used for soiled articles.

3. Contact Isolation - infectious diseases or Private rooms
multiple resistant micro Gowns, mask, gloves,
organisms that are handwashing
spread by close or direct
contact.
4. Enteric Precautions - infectious disease Private room is required
transmitted through if the patient does not
direct or indirect contact practice good hygiene
with infected feces. measures.
Hand-washing
Gloves

Gowns should only be

worn when handling

objects contaminated
with feces.
5. Blood and Body - blood-borne, Gloves
Fluids Precautions body fluids Mask and

pathogens (blood, protective eye

semen, vaginal gears
secretions, CSF, Gown

synovial fluid, Contaminated

pleural fluid, needles should

peritoneal fluid, not be recapped
and pericardial Use puncture

fluid, amniotic fluid resistant

and tissues. containers for
used needles and
other sharp items.