Course Instructor: Ms. J.

Srija
Assistant Professor
COURSE TITLE: MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-I

Department of
Civil Engineering
Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology
VINAYAKA MISSIONS UNIVERSITY
 UNIT I

STRESS,STRAIN AND
DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS
UNITS:
 DIRECT OR NORMAL STRESS

 When a force is transmitted through a body, the body

tends to change its shape or deform. The body is
said to be strained.

 Direct Stress = Applied Force (F)

Cross Sectional Area (A)

 Units: Usually N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2, MN/m2, GN/m2

or N/cm2
 Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
 Direct Stress Contd.

 Direct stress may be tensile or compressive and

result from forces acting perpendicular to the
plane of the cross-section


Tension

Compression
Tension and Compression
 Direct or Normal Strain

 When loads are applied to a body, some deformation will occur

resulting to a change in dimension.
 Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile loading force, F. If the bar
extension is dl and its original length (before loading) is L, then tensile
strain is:

F F
L dl
Direct Strain (  ) = Change in Length
Original Length
i.e.  = dl/L
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.

 As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is dimensionless.

 Similarly, for compression by amount, dl:
Compressive strain = - dl/L
 Note: Strain is positive for an increase in dimension
and negative for a reduction in dimension.
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain

 Shear stresses are produced by equal and opposite parallel

forces not in line.
 The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over the
other part.
 Shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts.
 Ultimate Strength

The strength of a material is a measure of the

stress that it can take when in use. The ultimate
strength is the measured stress at failure but this
is not normally used for design because safety
factors are required. The normal way to define a
safety factor is :

stress at failure Ultimate stress

safety factor = 
stress when loaded Permissible stress
 Strain

We must also define strain. In engineering this is not a

measure of force but is a measure of the deformation
produced by the influence of stress. For tensile and
compressive loads:
increase in length x
strain  =
original length L
Strain is dimensionless, i.e. it is not measured in metres,
killogrammes etc.
shear displacement x
shear strain  
width L
For shear loads the strain is defined as the angle  This
is measured in radians
 Shear stress and strain

Area resisting
shear
Shear displacement (x)

Shear Force

L Shear strain is angle 

Shear force
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain Contd.

x C’
C D D’
F
P Q
L
 S R

A B
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an element
or rectangular block as above. The shear strain,  (gamma) is
given as:
 = x/L = tan 
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain Concluded

 For small ,   
 Shear strain then becomes the change in the right
angle.
 It is dimensionless and is measured in radians.
 Elastic and Plastic deformation

Stress Stress

Strain Strain
Permanent
Deformation

Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

 Modulus of Elasticity

If the strain is "elastic" Hooke's law may be used to

define
Stress W L
Youngs M odulus E = = 
Strain x A
Young's modulus is also called the modulus of
elasticity or stiffness and is a measure of how much
strain occurs due to a given stress. Because strain is
dimensionless Young's modulus has the units of
stress or pressure
 How to calculate deflection if the proof stress is
applied and then partially removed.

If a sample is loaded up to the 0.2% proof stress and then unloaded to a stress s
the strain x = 0.2% + s/E where E is the Young’s modulus

Yield
Plastic

0.2% proof stress

s Failure

Stress

0.2% Strain
0.002 s/E
 Volumetric Strain

 Hydrostatic stress refers to tensile or

compressive stress in all dimensions within or
external to a body.
 Hydrostatic stress results in change in volume
of the material.
 Consider a cube with sides x, y, z. Let dx, dy,
and dz represent increase in length in all
directions.
 i.e. new volume = (x + dx) (y + dy) (z + dz)
 Volumetric Strain Contd.

 Neglecting products of small quantities:

 New volume = x y z + z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Original volume = x y z
 = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Volumetric strain,V = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
v x y z
  v = dx/x + dy/y + dz/z

v  x  y  z
 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

 All solid materials deform when they are

stressed, and as stress is increased,
deformation also increases.
 If a material returns to its original size and
shape on removal of load causing
deformation, it is said to be elastic.
 If the stress is steadily increased, a point is
reached when, after the removal of load, not
all the induced strain is removed.
 This is called the elastic limit.
 Hooke’s Law

 States that providing the limit of proportionality of a

material is not exceeded, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain produced.
 If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as load is
gradually applied, the first portion of the graph will
be a straight line.
 The slope of this line is the constant of
proportionality called modulus of Elasticity, E or
Young’s Modulus.
 It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
 Hooke’s Law

Direct stress 
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 
Direct strain 

Shear stress 
Also: For Shear stress: Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, G = 
Shear strain 

Also: Volumetric strain,  v is proportional to hydrostatic

stress,  within the elastic range

i.e. :  / v  K called bulk modulus.

Stress-Strain Relations of Mild Steel
 Equation For Extension

From the above equations:

 F/A F L
E   
 dl / L A dl
FL
dl 
AE

This equation for extension is

very important
Extension For Bar of Varying Cross Section

For a bar of varying cross section:

P
A1 A2 A3 P

L1 L2 L3

dl 
L
F L1 L2 L3
M  
O
P
N
E A1 A2 A3 Q
 Factor of Safety

 The load which any member of a machine carries

is called working load, and stress produced by this
load is the working stress.
 Obviously, the working stress must be less than
the yield stress, tensile strength or the ultimate
stress.
 This working stress is also called the permissible
stress or the allowable stress or the design stress.
 Factor of Safety Contd.

 Some reasons for factor of safety include the

inexactness or inaccuracies in the estimation of
stresses and the non-uniformity of some
materials.
Ultimate or yield stress
Factor of safety =
Design or working stress
Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g.
concrete which do not have a well-defined yield point,
or brittle materials which behave in a linear manner up
to failure. Yield stress is used for other materials e.g.
steel with well defined yield stress.
 Results From a Tensile Test

Stress up to lim it of proportionality

(a) Modulus of Elasticity, E
Strain
(b) Yield Stress or Proof Stress (See below)
Increase in gauge length
(c) Percentage elongation = x 100
Original gauge length

Original area  area at fracture

(d) Percentage reduction in area = x 100
Original area
Maximum load
(e) Tensile Strength =
Original cross sec tional area
The percentage of elongation and percentage reduction in area give an indication of the
ductility of the material i.e. its ability to withstand strain without fracture occurring.
 Proof Stress

 High carbon steels, cast iron and most of the non-

ferrous alloys do not exhibit a well defined yield as
is the case with mild steel.
 For these materials, a limiting stress called proof
stress is specified, corresponding to a non-
proportional extension.
 The non-proportional extension is a specified
percentage of the original length e.g. 0.05, 0.10,
0.20 or 0.50%.
 Determination of Proof Stress

Stress
Proof Stress P

Strain
A
The proof stress is obtained by drawing AP parallel to the initial slope of the
stress/strain graph, the distance, OA being the strain corresponding to the
required non-proportional extension e.g. for 0.05% proof stress, the strain is
0.0005.
 Thermal Strain

Most structural materials expand when heated,

in accordance to the law:   T
where  is linear strain and
 is the coefficient of linear expansion;
T is the rise in temperature.
That is for a rod of Length, L;
if its temperature increased by t, the extension,

dl = L T.
 Thermal Strain Contd.

As in the case of lateral strains, thermal strains

do not induce stresses unless they are constrained.
The total strain in a body experiencing thermal stress
may be divided into two components:
Strain due to stress,   and

That due to temperature,  T .


Thus: =  + T

 
=  T
E
 Principle of Superposition

 It states that the effects of several actions taking

place simultaneously can be reproduced exactly
by adding the effect of each action separately.
 The principle is general and has wide applications
and holds true if:
 (i) The structure is elastic
 (ii) The stress-strain relationship is linear
 (iii) The deformations are small.
General Stress-Strain Relationships
 Relationship between Elastic Modulus (E) and Bulk
Modulus, K

It has been shown that :  v   x   y   z

1
 x   x   ( y   z )
E
For hydrostatic stress,  x   y   z  

1 
i. e. x    2    1 2 
E E

Similarly ,  y and  z are each 1 2 
E
v   x   y  z  Volumetric strain
3
v  1 2 
E
3
E 1 2 
v
Volumetric or hydrostatic stress 
Bulk Modulus, K  
Volumetric strain v
E
i. e. E  3 K 1  2  and K
3 1 2 
 Compound Bars

A compound bar is one comprising two or more parallel elements, of different materials,
which are fixed together at their end. The compound bar may be loaded in tension or
compression.
1 2

F F

Section through a typical compound bar consisting of a circular bar (1) surrounded by a
tube (2)
 Temperature stresses in compound
bars

1 1
2 2
L
(a) L 1 T
1
L 2 T
FL
2 {b}
A1 E1

F 1 F

F 2 F
FL
(c)
A2 E 2
 Temperature Stresses Contd.

Free expansions in bars (1) and (2) are L 1T and L 2 T respectively.

Due to end fixing force, F: the decrease in length of bar (1) is
FL FL
and the increase in length of (2) is .
A1 E1 A2 E2
1 1
At Equilibrium: 2 2
FL FL L
L 1 T   L 2 T 
A1 E1 A2 E2 (a) L 1 T

1 1 1
i. e. F[  ]  T ( 1   2 )
A1 E1 A2 E2 L 2 T

i. e.
LA E  A E O
 AM 2
P
 T ( 2 1 1
2)
2 {b}
FL
A1 E1
1
N E
1
E A A Q 1 2 1 2
1

F 1 F
T ( 1   2 ) A2 E1 E2
1 
A1 E1  A2 E2 F 2 F
FL
(c)
T ( 1   2 ) A1 E1 E2 A2 E 2
2 
A1 E1  A2 E2

Note: As a result of Force, F, bar (1) will be in compression while (2) will be in tension.
 Example

 A steel tube having an external diameter of 36 mm and an

internal diameter of 30 mm has a brass rod of 20 mm
diameter inside it, the two materials being joined rigidly at
their ends when the ambient temperature is 18 0C.
Determine the stresses in the two materials: (a) when the
temperature is raised to 68 0C (b) when a compressive
load of 20 kN is applied at the increased temperature.
 Example Contd.

 For brass: Modulus of elasticity = 80 GN/m2;

Coefficient of expansion = 17 x 10 -6 /0C
 For steel: Modulus of elasticity = 210 GN/m2;
Coefficient of expansion = 11 x 10 -6 /0C
 Solution

30 Brass rod 20 36

Steel tube

 x 202
Area of brass rod (Ab) =  314.16 mm2
4
 x (362  302 )
Area of steel tube (As) =  31102
. mm2
4
6
As E s  311.02 x 10 m x 210 x 10 9 N / m 2  0.653142 x 108 N
2

1
 153106
. x 108
As E s
 Solution Contd.

Ab E b  314.16 x 10 6 m 2 x 80 x 10 9 N / m 2  0.251327 x 108 N

1
 3.9788736 x 108
Ab Eb
T ( b   s )  50(17  11) x 10 6  3 x 10 4

With increase in temperature, brass will be in compression while

steel will be in tension. This is because expands more than steel.

1 1
i. e. F[  ]  T ( b   s )
As E s Ab Eb
i.e. F[1.53106 + 3.9788736] x 10 -8 = 3 x 10 -4
F = 5444.71 N
 Solution Concluded

5444.71N
Stress in steel tube = 2
 17.51N / mm2  17.51 MN / m2 (Tension)
31102
. mm
5444.71N
Stress in brass rod = 2
 17.33 N / mm2  17.33 MN / m2 (Compression)
314.16 mm
(b) Stresses due to compression force, F’ of 20 kN
F ' Es 20 x 103 N x 210 x 109 N / m2
s    46.44 MN / m2 ( Compression)
E s As  Eb Ab 0.653142  0.251327 x 10 8

F ' Eb 20 x 103 N x 80 x 109 N / m2

b    17.69 MN / m2 ( Compression)
E s As  Eb Ab 0.653142  0.251327 x 10 8

Resultant stress in steel tube = - 46.44 + 17.51 = 28.93 MN/m2 (Compression)

Resultant stress in brass rod = -17.69 - 17.33 = 35.02 MN/m2 (Compression)
 Example

 A composite bar, 0.6 m long comprises a steel bar 0.2

m long and 40 mm diameter which is fixed at one end
to a copper bar having a length of 0.4 m.
 Determine the necessary diameter of the copper bar
in order that the extension of each material shall be
the same when the composite bar is subjected to an
axial load.
 What will be the stresses in the steel and copper
when the bar is subjected to an axial tensile loading of
30 kN? (For steel, E = 210 GN/m2; for copper, E = 110
GN/m2)
 Solution

0.2 mm
0.4 mm
F 40 mm dia d F

Let the diameter of the copper bar be d mm

Specified condition: Extensions in the two bars are equal
dlc  dls
 FL
dl   L  L
E AE
Fc Lc FL
Thus:  s s
Ac Ec As E s
 Solution Concluded
Also: Total force, F is transmitted by both copper and steel
i.e. Fc = Fs = F
Lc L
i. e.  s
Ac Ec As E s
Substitute values given in problem:
0.4 m 0.2 m

 d 2 / 4 m2 110 x 109 N / m2  / 4 x 0.0402 x 210 x 109 N / m2

2 x 210 x 0.0402 2
d 
2
m ; d  0.07816 m  7816
. mm.
110
Thus for a loading of 30 kN
30 x 103 N
Stress in steel,  s   / 4 x 0.0402 x 10 6  23.87 MN / m
2

30 x 103 N
Stress in copper,  c   / 4 x 0.078162 x 10 6  9 MN / m
2
 Elastic Strain Energy

 If a material is strained by a gradually applied load,

then work is done on the material by the applied
load.
 The work is stored in the material in the form of
strain energy.
 If the strain is within the elastic range of the
material, this energy is not retained by the material
upon the removal of load.
 Elastic Strain Energy Contd.

Figure below shows the load-extension graph of a uniform bar.

The extension dl is associated with a gradually applied load, P
which is within the elastic range. The shaded area represents
the work done in increasing the load from zero to its value
Load
P

Extension
dl
Work done = strain energy of bar = shaded area
 Elastic Strain Energy Concluded

W = U = 1/2 P dl (1)
Stress,  
= P/A i.e P = A
Strain = Stress/E
i.e dl/L =  /E , dl = ( L)/E L= original length
Substituting for P and dl in Eqn (1) gives:
W = U = 1/2 A .( L)/E = 2
/2E x A L
A L is the volume of the bar.

 2
i.e U= /2E x Volume

The units of strain energy are same as those of work i.e. Joules. Strain energy
 2
per unit volume, /2E is known as resilience. The greatest amount of energy that can

stored in a material without permanent set occurring will be when is equal to the
elastic limit stress.