Mechatronics

Mechatronics
DESAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Introduction
12/29/2019 Mechatronics DE CA ZG511 BITS Pilani 2

What is it?

Applications
• Automobiles
• Robots
• Machine tools
• What not!!!!

Building blocks - Systems
• Embedded systems
• Microcontrollers
• Not possible to change Programs like computer
Examples are controls of ,
- Washing machine
- Air conditioner
- Automobiles and many other devices
Building blocks - Modelling
• Modelling of systems
• Output Response is
not instantaneous to
input
• May not be linear
• Predict the system
response

Building blocks - Feedback

Building blocks – Open , Closed loops
Steam Rice cooker-
Open or closed
loop?
Building blocks - Signals
Analogue Digital
Advantages Advantages
Produces a more Can be very
'faithful' immune to noise
reproduction of the
physical quantity.
Usually simple Signal can be
transmitted over
Analog signal Digital signal long distances.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Noise and distortion Output subject to
problems quantity errors
from sampling
Can be complex

Building blocks - Signals

Building blocks - Sequential controllers
Getting fast replaced by mechatronics principles

Building blocks - PLCs
Ladder Diagram

Building blocks - PLCs

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Recap of Fundamentals

Voltage / Current
•Water = Charge
•Pressure = Voltage
•Flow = Current (Charge per unit time)

Voltage / Current
AC Voltage

Resistance
5 6 x 10 = 560 Ω
R???

Resistances in Series

Resistances in Parallel

Voltage divider circuit
Light
R2 (Sensor) R1 (Fixed) Ratio R2/(R1+R2) Vout
Level
Light 1kΩ 5.6kΩ 0.15 0.76 V
Dim 7kΩ 5.6kΩ 0.56 2.78 V
Dark 10kΩ 5.6kΩ 0.67 3.21 V

Voltage divider circuit
An amber coloured LED with a forward volt

drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a 5.0v
stabilised DC power supply. Using the
circuit calculate the value of the series
resistor required to limit the forward current
to less than 10mA

Capacitor
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Q= C x 𝑉
𝑑𝑄
C = Q/V = C x 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
C is Capacitance in Farad 1
Q is charge in Columb 𝑊= ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉2
2
V - Volts
Capacitor

Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in Parallel

Inductors
Used as filters, motors,

transformers etc,
An inductor opposes the rate of change of current flowing through it due to the
build up of self-induced energy within its magnetic field.
Φ- Magnetic flux (Weber)

L – Inductance (Henry)
i- Ampere
V - Voltage
Circuits
Pure Resistance Circuit Pure Capacitance Circuit Pure Inductive Circuit
Unlike Resistor which just impedes the current (Constant Ohms),

Capacitor and inductor impede currents (Variable ohms) based
on frequency of power supply
Kirchoff’s Law

Kirchoff’s Law

Kirchoff’s Law (Home work)

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin voltage VTH is defined as the voltage across the
load terminals when the load resistor is open
The Thevenin resistance is defined as the resistance that

an ohmmeter measures across the load terminals



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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus

Magnetic field

Magnetic field

Magnetic field

DC motor

Conductor / Insulator
Neon atom, Poor

Copper atom, Good conductor – Eight
conductor – One electrons in outer most
electron in outer most orbit
orbit

Semi conductor
Silicon Atom in the
center surrounded by
other 4 silicon atoms
sharing one electron
with center atom

Semi conductor
At room temperatures, valence electrons leave the orbit and

their absence is marked by “ holes” (Positive charge)

Doping
Pentavalent
atom Pentavalent atoms have five electrons in the valence
orbit. Examples of pentavalent atoms include arsenic,
antimony, and phosphorus.
Because these materials will donate an extra electron

to the silicon crystal, they are often referred to as donor
impurities
Trivalent
atom
How can we dope a pure silicon crystal to get an
excess of holes?
By using a trivalent impurity, one whose atoms have

only three valence electrons. Examples include
aluminum, boron, and gallium.

Doping
N type Semi conductor
Trivalent holes Pentavalent Electrons
impurities impurities
P type Semi conductor

P-N Junction

P-N Junction

P-N Junction

Diodes

Diodes

Transistors (BJTs) – Bipolar Junction transistors
• The emitter is heavily doped.
• The base is lightly doped.
• The doping level of the collector is intermediate,

between the heavy doping of the emitter and the light
doping of the base.
Why called as Bipolar?
Operation depends on Free

Electrons and Holes

Transistors

Transistors
Conventional Current Electron Flow
βdc is the current gain of the transistor – A

small base current controls much larger
collector current
Transistors

Transistors

Transistors
•Saturation – The transistor

acts like a short circuit.
Current freely flows from
collector to emitter.
•Cut-off – The transistor acts
like an open circuit. No
current flows from collector to
emitter.
•Active – The current from
collector to emitter
is proportional to the current
flowing into the base.
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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus

Transistors

Transistors

Transistors
•Saturation – The transistor

acts like a short circuit.
Current freely flows from
collector to emitter.
•Cut-off – The transistor acts
like an open circuit. No
current flows from collector to
emitter.
•Active – The current from
collector to emitter
is proportional to the current
flowing into the base.
Transistor as a switch

Field Effect transistors (unipolar)
Gate Voltage Controls Drain Current

Why called as Unipolar?
Much faster switching circuit than
Operation depends on either BJTs.
Free Electrons or Holes

MOSFET

MOSFET
INPUT IMPEDANCE- VERY HIGH
SIZE – VERY SMALL
LESS NOISY THAN BJT

MOSFET
SIZE – VERY SMALL
LESS NOISY THAN BJT
NO THERMAL RUNAWAYS

Voltage chopping

Thyristor (SCRs)

Thyristor (SCRs)
By accurately varying the timing relationship between the Gate pulse and the
positive half-cycle, the Thyristor could be made to supply any percentage of
power desired to the load, between 0% and 50%
Triacs

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Sensors

Eddy current Sensors
Voltage output
When an alternating current is passed thru this

coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated.
If a metal object comes in the close proximity
of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in
the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy
currents create their own magnetic field which
For very high accuracy
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their
- Uses Air core coil
generation.
Eddy current Sensors
•Tolerance to dirty environments

•Less expensive than capacitive sensors

Inductive Proximity Sensors
For medium accuracy

- Uses Ferromagnetic
coil
An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field.

When, a metal object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the
coil changes. This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a
switch when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.

Pneumatic Proximity Sensors
Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any
obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the
pressure in the port B. However when an object obstructs the low pressure air
(Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B. This rise in pressure is
calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch.
Absolute Optical Encoders

Number of tracks = Number of LEDs
4 tracks means 24 = 16 bits
360° / 16 = 22.5°
Resolution is 22.5°


Incremental Optical Encoders

Hall effect
The production of a potential difference

across an electrical conductor when a
magnetic field is applied in a direction
perpendicular to that of the flow of current.

Hall effect sensors

Hall effect sensors

Hall effect sensors use in BLDC motors

Hall effect sensors use in BLDC motors

Velocity and Motion

Tachogenerator / Alternator for angular
motion
Tacho Generator Toothed wheel is mounted on the
shaft or the element of which
angular motion is to be measured.
Magnetic circuit comprising of a

coil wound on a ferromagnetic
material core.
Alternator As the wheel rotates, the air gap

between wheel tooth and magnetic
core changes which results in
cyclic change in flux linked with
the coil.
The alternating emf generated is

the measure of angular motion.

Pyroelectric Sensor (Lithium Tantalite)
Sensor Electrode
When an intruder
(Human) walks
emission of infrared
takes place and this
Polarized Crystal heats up the Lithium
Tantalite crystal and it
loses its polarization.
The net charge change

is detected by the
signal circuit.

Force and Pressure

Load cells
It comprises of cylindrical
tube to which strain gauges
are attached.
A load applied on the top
collar of the cylinder
compress the strain gauge
element which changes its
electrical resistance.
Generally strain gauges are
used to measure forces up to
10 MN.
The non-linearity and
repeatability errors of this
transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.

Rocket Thrust measurement – Load cell
20 Million N(Newton)
thrust measured by
Futek Load cells !

Pressure measurement Sensors

Piezo Electric Sensors
On application of force or
pressure these materials get
stretched or compressed.
Piezoelectric Effect During this process, the charge
is the ability of over the material changes and
certain materials redistributes.
to generate an
electric charge in One face of the material becomes
response to positively charged and the other
applied negatively charged.
mechanical stress
The net charge q on the surface
is proportional to the amount x by
which the charges have been
displaced.
The displacement is proportion to

force
Piezo Electric Sensors
It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film
which transmits the vibrations.
An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF

layer which generates vibrations due to reverse
piezoelectric effect.
These vibrations are transmitted to the upper

PVDF layer via soft film.
These vibrations cause alternating voltage

across the upper PVDF layer.
When some pressure is applied on the upper

PVDF – Polyvinylidene Flouride PVDF layer the vibrations gets affected and the
output voltage changes.
This triggers a switch or an action in robots or
touch displays
Fluid Flow / Level

Orifice meters

Turbine flow meters
Revolution of rotor is picked by Magnetic pickup and pulses are

counted.
Turbine flowmeters are less accurate at low flow rates due to

rotor/bearing drag that slows the rotor.
Accuracy is 0.3% to 1.0% of flow.

Fluid level meters

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Sensors

Temperature

Bimetal Strips
Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in
a manufacturing process or system.
It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The metals have different
coefficients of expansion.
On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher coefficient
of expansion on the outside of the curve
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)


2 Wire RTD Lead Wire resistances

affect the
measurement.
3 Wire RTD

The instrument will pass a constant

current (I) through the outer leads,
1 and 4.
The voltage drop is measured

across the inner leads, 2 and 3.
So from V = IR we can find the

resistance of the element alone,
with no effect from the lead wire
resistance
Thermistors
Thermistors follow the principle of

decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.
The material used in thermistor is generally

a semiconductor material such as a sintered
metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides,
chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and
nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic
containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
other compounds.

Thermistors

Thermocouples
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a

Hot Junction Cold junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
(Or the junction an electric potential related to temperature
junction to (Reference
be Junction) . As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two
measured) wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined
at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then
there is a continuous current which flows in the
Useful to measure very high thermoelectric circuit.
temperatures and quiet
inexpensive
Thermocouples
a, b are constants for the metal
combinations
E- EMF
T- Temperature

Photodiodes
Without light, @ reverse bias of 3V, current could be 25µA, Resistance is 120KΩ,
With light of 25K Lumes/Sqm , the current raises to 375µA, Resistance is 8KΩ

Photo Darlington

Types of switches

SPST / SPDT switch

SPDT switch

DPDT switch

Switch bouncing problem
Can be overcome by Software adjustments as well. By

introducing deliberate time delay of say 30 ms
Schmitt Trigger

Schmitt Trigger

Selection of Sensors
Variable to be measured
Nominal value
Range of values
Accuracy required
Required speed of measurement
Reliability of device
Environmental conditions
Nature of output of sensor
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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Differencing op- amp

Logarithmic amplifier

Virtual Ground of Op Amp
+ terminal is connected to
ground
Gain (K) of amplifier is 100,000
Output voltage is say 10 V
Means input voltage is 0.0001.
This can be considered as Zero!!
Point X is at “0” Voltage!!

This assumption of Virtual Ground
saves us from lots of algebraic Called Virtual Ground
manipulations!!!

Ideal Op Amp Assumptions(Summarized)
Input Impedance is Very High (10 Mega Ohms)
Output Impedance is Very low ( 10 Ohms)
No current passes through Op amp
Virtual ground assumption can be made safely
Gain is very high ( 100,000 – 1,000,000)

Inverting amplifier
Potential difference across R1 is
Vin – Vx = I1 x R1
Potential difference across R2 is
Vx – Vout =I2 x R2
No current can flow through X into Op

Amp (Refer our assumptions)
Means I1 = I2
Again Vx = 0 (based on virtual ground)

Non – Inverting amplifier
This is voltage divider circuit
R2 and R1 are in series with X in

between.
Again Vx = Vin ( No current flows

through Op Amp)

Voltage Follower
Non Inverting amplifier without resistors is a follower
a) Used in voltage divider

circuit
b) As isolators

Summing Amplifier
How to generate average of these signals?????

Integrating Amplifier
Replace resistor R2 in inverting amplifier with a capacitor
Interchange the capacitor

and Resistor positions you
get Differentiating Amplifier
– Verify!!!!
Differencing amplifier
At same Potential !

Voltage Comparator

Logarithmic amplifier
Linearizes exponential
signals

Amplifier errors
Offset voltage: Presence of output

v+ even if v+ and v- are shorted
v-
1 5
Sliding contact of
the potentiometer
to a negative
supply, so that Vout
is zero, when V+
and V- are equal

Protectors

Zener Diode (Voltage Regulator)

Zener circuit design calculation
Given,
Vs = 20 Volt to 24Volt
VL= 12 Volt
RL = 24 Ohms
Zener voltage VZ should be 12 Volts
Load current = VL/RL= 12/24 = 500 mA Select Zener
RS= (VS – VZ)/ IL = (20- 12)/500 mA = 16 Ohms VZ = ? IZ = ? Power =??
Load current through resistor

IS (max) = (24-12) / 16 = 750 mA Suppose by chance voltage at
IS (min) = (20-12) / 16 = 500 mA source drops to 19 Volts, what
IS = I Z + I L will happen?
750 = IZ + 500 mA
Iz= 250 mA
Power of Zener = 12V *250 mA = 3 Watts

Zener Calculation (Home work)
If the Zener diode below is of 10 V breakdown then, what is

Vout and Max Zener, min Zener currents

Zener Circuit

Opto Isolator
Current from the source signal passes through

the input LED which emits an infra-red light
whose intensity is proportional to the electrical
signal.

Protection Circuit

Wheatstone bridge
The above circuit is balanced as VC= VD
𝑅1 𝑅3
As =
𝑅2 𝑅4

Wheatstone bridge
Unbalanced circuit Connecting a RTD or strain

gauge
Vc? Vd ?
Wheatstone bridge

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Signal conditioning

Data Acquisition system

Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)

Ideal Op Amp
Vi- The difference in voltage
between Non Inv and Inv
inputs
K- Output gain (105 to 107 )

Internal Circuity of Op Amp 741

Typical Characteristics of Op amp

Ideal Op Amp
Simplified diagram showing only voltage

inputs (without external power supply)
Ideal Op Amp
If Vin is ground ;
If Vip is ground;
This is why Vin Is called Non- Inverting

and
Vout is called Inverting input

Feedback

Virtual ground

Inverting op amp

Non- Inverting op amp

Summing Op- amp

Integrating Op-amp

Differentiating Op-amp

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Signal conditioning

Pass filters configurations

Low pass filters
At very low frequencies XC infinity so RF dominates the parallel

combination in Equation and the capacitor has no effect. The gain at low
frequencies is –RF/RG.
At very high frequencies XC 0, so the feedback resistor is shorted out,

thus reducing the circuit gain to zero

High Pass filters

Analog to Digital
Digital to Analog
Converters

Analog to Digital Schematic

Nyquist Theorem

Digital signal processing – Basics

A-D characteristics
MSB is a bit of the highest digit, and the LSB is a bit of the lowest digit
01100011
Conversion Rate: How many conversions per unit time
Voltage range: Reference voltage (Analog voltage that controller

can handle)
Resolution :
n – number of bits
Quantization Error (Digitization accuracy)
Quantization error = Resolution Error ∕ 2
Say a analog input of 5 V and we use 2 bit converter
Means 0 0 , 0 1, 1 0 and 1 1 are the possible representation

Resolution: ?
Quantization error: ?

Calculation

Quantization Error (Digitization accuracy)

Weighted resistor DAC

Weighted resistor DAC
MSB
The resistances are

increased form
MSB to LSB to
adjust to the
weightage of the
binary digits
Availability Accurate
LSB resistances is a problem and
that too at varying
temperatures, Limited to 4
bit conversions

R-2R Ladder DAC
Advantage is only 2
values of
Resistances are used
which is better than
2R,3R,4R etc used in
weighted resistor
DAC

Sample and Hold circuit
Zout Voltage follower is used to provide low output impedance during charging of
holding capacitor (Closing of FET switch).
Zin voltage follower is used to provide high input impedance once the FET switch is
open.

Flash A-D converters

Vin= 5.5 Volts (From Analog input)
D7 Vref = 8 Volts (Constant)
8V
0
7V 0
6V
1
5V 1
1
3V
1
This is 3 bit Flash
1 D0 ADC – requiring 23-1
comparators.

Our case is 00 111111
Output 1 0 1 corresponds to 5V

Priority Encoders

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Modelling
A model is an abstract of the physical world

Input / Output concept

Static and dynamic systems
p1= f1/A1 =p2=f2/A2

dh/dt α qmi – qm0
f2= (A2/A1)*f1
f2*L1 = f3*L2
f3= f1* (A2/A1)* (L1/L2)

Mechanical systems

Mechanical systems

Spring Mass system

Spring Mass system

Quarter body

Rotational systems

Electrical Systems

Hydraulic Circuits

Rotational – Translational

Rotational – Translational

Electro- Mechanical Systems

DC Motor
Rotating part
(Armature)
Stationary part (Electro magnet)

DC Motor

DC Motor

DC Motor

Linearization
Linearity Non linear Error

1 -2 -2 0
1.01 -2.04 -2.040199 0.000199
1.02 -2.08 -2.080792 0.000792
1.03 -2.12 -2.121773 0.001773 F(x)= x^3-5x^2+3x -1
1.04 -2.16 -2.163136 0.003136
1.05 -2.2 -2.204875 0.004875
L(x) at 1 is
1.06 -2.24 -2.246984 0.006984
1.07 -2.28 -2.289457 0.009457
= -4x +2
1.08 -2.32 -2.332288 0.012288
1.09 -2.36 -2.375471 0.015471 Curve of F(x)= x^3-5x^2+3x +1
1.1 -2.4 -2.419 0.019
2 -6 -7
3 -10 -10
4 -14 -5
5 -18 14
Linearization

Dynamic response of systems
Natural Response Forced Response

Forms of Inputs
Transient and
steady state
response









Behavior of second order system

Behavior of second order system

Step response of systems
Rise time: From Zero to

90% of steady state value
Peak time : First peak to

occur
Overshoot : Amplitude of
first Peak
Settling times

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Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Transfer functions

Control systems

Control systems

Transfer function
Gain = Output / Input = x(t)/y(t)
Gain of inverting amplifier is Vout /Vin = -R2 /R1
Whereas differential equation cannot be expressed as a gain equation as simple ratio
Therefore Laplace transforms are used
Transfer Function = Laplace transformation of output
Laplace transformation of input

Laplace transform of derivatives

Example 1 – Transfer function

Example 2 – Transfer Function

First order system example

First order system problem

Second Order system

Second Order system

Second Order system

Second Order system
Over damped
Critically damped
Under damped

Second Order system

Systems in series

Systems with feedback loops

Stability of system
A system is stable if, when it is given an input, it has transients
which die away with time.
Final state is steady state condition
It is unstable, if transients do not die away with time but increase

in size and steady state is not attained.

Stability of system
For a transfer function, value of s which make the transfer function infinite is
termed as Poles
If poles are negative, then system is stable
If poles are positive, then system is unstable

Stability of system
A system is stable , if the real

part of all its poles is negative
A system is unstable, if the

real part of any of its poles is
positive
Matlab code to view the graph
syms s, t
num = [ 1];
den = [1 2 4];
step (num, den)

Stability of system

Frequency Response

Recap

Response

Phasors

Phasors
a =10*cos (30°) = 8.7 V

b = 10*sin(30°) = 5.0 V
Phasor is 8.7 + j 5.0 V
Phasors

Phasor Equations

Bode Plot

Closed Loop Controllers

Continuous and discrete control process

Control system terminology

Terminology
• Lag
• Time required for the system to make necessary
response
• Steady State error

Steady state error

Control modes – On/Off

Control modes – Proportional (P)

Proportional (P) Hardware


Derivative (D)

Derivative (D) – Hardware
Does not respond to steady state errors!

PD control

PD control
Ideal for fast changing

processes

Integral Control
Laplace transform
of an integral
(Refer Zill)!

Integral (I) control

Integral (I) control - Hardware

P I control

P I control

P I D control

P I D control - Hardware

Typical PID combination
29-Dec-19 Birla Institute of Technology and Science.Pilani 283

Commercial PID

Commercial PID

Ziegler – Nichols – Process Reaction
Open the control loop, no control
action is allowed
R is maximum gradient(Slope) = M/T
Study the example problem given in

Bolton

Ziegler-Nichols – Ultimate cycle
The method describes

the procedure to find out
constants like gain,
Integral time, derivative
time

Procedure
Step 1:
Remove the integral and derivative action from the
controller by setting
a) Derivative time to zero,
b) Integral time to zero
c) Proportional gain to one.
Step 2:
Run the system in automatic mode and control loop.

Procedure
Step 3:
Upset the process (Say change the set point)
Step 4:
If the response curve does not damp but is unstable
(Like below)
then gain is too high. Reduce the gain

Procedure
Step 5:
If the response curve damps out
then gain is too low. Increase the gain till you get the
stable response.

Procedure
Record the value of Time (Pu) and ultimate gain (Su) which generated stable
response.
Set the calculated parameters in

the controller

Other tuning procedures
Manual:
 Operator estimates the tuning parameters required to give the desired
controller response
 Proportional , integral, and derivative terms must be adjusted and tuned
individually to a particular system using trial and error method.
Auto tune:
• The controller takes care of calculating and setting PID parameters

 Measures sensor
 Calculates error, sum of error, rate of change of error
 Calculates desired parameter with PID equations
 Updates control output

Thank you

Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Transfer functions

Control systems

Control systems

Transfer function
Gain = Output / Input = x(t)/y(t)
Gain of inverting amplifier is Vout /Vin = -R2 /R1
Whereas differential equation cannot be expressed as a gain equation as simple ratio
Therefore Laplace transforms are used
Transfer Function = Laplace transformation of output
Laplace transformation of input

Laplace transform of derivatives

Example 1 – Transfer function

Example 2 – Transfer Function

First order system example

First order system problem

Second Order system

Second Order system

Second Order system

Second Order system
Over damped
Critically damped
Under damped

Second Order system

Systems in series

Systems with feedback loops

Stability of system
A system is stable if, when it is given an input, it has transients
which die away with time.
Final state is steady state condition
It is unstable, if transients do not die away with time but increase

in size and steady state is not attained.

Stability of system
For a transfer function, value of s which make the transfer function infinite is
termed as Poles
If poles are negative, then system is stable
If poles are positive, then system is unstable

Stability of system
A system is stable , if the real

part of all its poles is negative
A system is unstable, if the

real part of any of its poles is
positive
Matlab code to view the graph
syms s, t
num = [ 1];
den = [1 2 4];
step (num, den)

Stability of system

Frequency Response

Recap

Response

Phasors

Phasors
a =10*cos (30°) = 8.7 V

b = 10*sin(30°) = 5.0 V
Phasor is 8.7 + j 5.0 V
Phasors

Phasor Equations

Bode Plot

Closed Loop Controllers

Continuous and discrete control process

Control system terminology

Terminology
• Lag
• Time required for the system to make necessary
response
• Steady State error

Steady state error

Control modes – On/Off

Control modes – Proportional (P)



Derivative (D)

Derivative (D) – Hardware
Does not respond to steady state errors!

PD control

PD control
Ideal for fast changing

processes

Integral Control
Laplace transform
of an integral
(Refer Zill)!

Integral (I) control

Integral (I) control - Hardware

P I control

P I control

P I D control

P I D control - Hardware

Typical PID combination

Commercial PID

Commercial PID

Ziegler – Nichols – Process Reaction
Open the control loop, no control
action is allowed
R is maximum gradient(Slope) = M/T
Study the example problem given in

Bolton

Ziegler-Nichols – Ultimate cycle
The method describes

the procedure to find out
constants like gain,
Integral time, derivative
time

Procedure
Step 1:
Remove the integral and derivative action from the
controller by setting
a) Derivative time to zero,
b) Integral time to zero
c) Proportional gain to one.
Step 2:
Run the system in automatic mode and control loop.

Procedure
Step 3:
Upset the process (Say change the set point)
Step 4:
If the response curve does not damp but is unstable
(Like below)
then gain is too high. Reduce the gain

Procedure
Step 5:
If the response curve damps out
then gain is too low. Increase the gain till you get the
stable response.

Procedure
Record the value of Time (Pu) and ultimate gain (Su) which generated stable
response.
Set the calculated parameters in

the controller

Other tuning procedures
Manual:
 Operator estimates the tuning parameters required to give the desired
controller response
 Proportional , integral, and derivative terms must be adjusted and tuned
individually to a particular system using trial and error method.
Auto tune:
• The controller takes care of calculating and setting PID parameters

 Measures sensor
 Calculates error, sum of error, rate of change of error
 Calculates desired parameter with PID equations
 Updates control output

Thank you

Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Electrical Actuation systems

Relays

Contactors
Extending the life of relay tips by reducing the amount of arcing generated
as they open is achieved by connecting a Resistor-Capacitor network
called an RC Snubber Network electrically in parallel with an electrical
relay contact tips.
The voltage peak, which occurs at the instant the contacts open, will be
safely short circuited by the RC network, thus suppressing any arc
generated at the contact tips.
Diodes

Transistor as a switch

NPN Vs PNP
The main difference between the NPN and PNP transistor is, an NPN transistor turns on
when the current flows through the base of the transistor. In this type of transistor, the
current flows from the collector (C) to the emitter (E).
A PNP transistor turns ON, when there is no current at the base of the transistor. In this
transistor, the current flows from the emitter (E) to the collector (C).
PNP transistor turns ON by a low signal (ground), where NPN transistor turns ON by a
high signal (current).

Field Effect transistors (unipolar)
Gate Voltage Controls Drain Current
Much faster switching circuit than

BJTs.

MOSFET
Enhancement
mode
SIZE – VERY SMALL
LESS NOISY THAN BJT

Depletion mode
Voltage chopping

Thyristor (SCRs)

Thyristor (SCRs)
By accurately varying the timing relationship between the Gate pulse and the
positive half-cycle, the Thyristor could be made to supply any percentage of
power desired to the load, between 0% and 50%
Triacs

Voltage control
Thyristor Triac

DC control

AC control
` `
`
Triac
The diode is to prevent the negative

part of the alternating voltage cycle being
applied to the gate
MOSFETs
Level shifter bridges domain

between low-power
application processors running
at 1.8 V and other system
functions like sensors or other
analog intensive applications
running at 3.3 or 5V.

Motor types

DC motors (Brush type)
Stator is magnet – Stationary magnetic field
Rotor has coil winding.

PWM modulation of DC motor

Types
Series motor: Provides

high starting torque
Shunt motor : Provides

low starting torque-
Constant torque-speed
motor.

Transistorized DC motor control
Power supply
to motor
If A is high, B is
low, then Q2 and
Q3 are ON
High Low
Q1 and Q3 are PNP

Say motor rotates anti
Q2 and Q4 are NPN clockwise

Transistorized DC motor control
Power supply
to motor
If A is Low, B is
High, then Q1
and Q4 are ON
Low High
Q1 and Q3 are PNP

Say motor rotates
Q2 and Q4 are NPN clockwise

DC motors (Brushless type - BLDC)
Rotor is magnet –Rotating magnetic field - Permanent
Stator has coil winding.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCEiOnuODac


DC motors (BLDC Vs Brushed DC)

Special motors

AC motors (Induction /Synchronous)



Stepper Motor (Permanent Magnet)

Stepper Motor (Permanent Magnet)

Stepper Motor (Variable reluctance/ Hybrid
Motor)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyqwLiowZiU
Variable reluctance motor
If there are n phases on stator

and m teeth on rotor, then
total number of steps = n x m
Soft steel

Stepper Motor ( Full stepping)

Stepper Motor (Half stepping)

Stepper Motor (Problem)
For one complete revolution (360° / 7.5°) = 48 pulses
For 10 revolutions = 48 *10 =480 Pulses per second digital input rate is required.

Mechanical Actuation systems

Freedom and constraints
Break down the motion into combinations of translational and rotational motions
so that we can design mechanisms to carry out each of these components of
the motion.
For example, among the sequence of control signals sent to a mechanism

might be such groupings of signals as those to instruct joint 1 to rotate by 20°
and link 2 to be extended by 4 mm for translational motion.

Freedom and constraints

Kinematic Chains (Links, Nodes Joints)
Nodes
Joints

Four bar chain
Grashof Condition
If the sum of the shortest and
longest link of a planar
quadrilateral linkage is less than
or equal to the sum of the
remaining two links, then the
shortest link can rotate fully with
respect to a neighbouring link.

Four bar chain

Four bar chain applications
Toggle return
Quick return Mechanisms

Four bar chain applications
Film Indexing mechanism

Cams

Cams

Gears

Gears

Rotational to translational motion

Ratch and Pawl
Rotation of the ratchet wheel in a clockwise direction is

prevented by the pawl and can only take place when the
pawl is lifted

Belts

Bearings
Journal Bearing (Suited for radial load)
The insert may be a white metal, aluminium alloy,

copper alloy, bronze or a polymer such as nylon or
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).

Bearing type comparison
29-Dec-19 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Bearing type comparison
29-Dec-19 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University408

under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Motor selection
Drum Dia =0.5 m

Mass (Load ) =1000 Kg
Speed of hoist = 0.5 m/s
Tension in cable = 1000 x 9.81 N
Torque = 9810 x 0.25 ® = 2.5 KN-m

Angular velocity of drum = 0.5 / 0.25 = 2 rad/s
Rotation per second w=2*pi*f , then f=0.32 rev/s
Assume 1500 RPM motor or 25rev/s

The gear ratio : 25/0.32 = 80:1
Load torque on motor = 2.5KN-m/80 = 31.25 N-m
With friction etc = 35 N-m
What is missing in this calculation?

Motor selection

Motor selection

Motor selection

Motor selection

Pneumatic and Hydraulics

Typical Hydraulic circuit

Typical Hydraulic circuit

Hydraulic Pumps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qy1iV6EzNHg
Pneumatic circuit

Air compressors
Multistage compressors are used to increase pressures

beyond 12 bar and to 140 bar of pressure
Valves
• Finite position valve
• Infinite position valve
• Directional control valves

Directional control valves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CQPwvWXbV3w

Poppet Valves

Pilot Operated valves

Pilot Operated valves

Directional Valves

Valve symbols

Valve symbols

Valve symbols
3 / 2 means
3 – Ports
2- Positions

Valve symbols

Valve symbols

Valve symbols
Can you re-design the

load lifting with 3/2
Valve?
Pressure control valves

Pressure sequence valves

Sequencing controls

Cylinders (Single acting)

Cylinders (Double acting)

Cylinders (Double acting)
Formula
Force = Pressure * Area
Flow = Area x velocity
• Pressure of fluid determines the force exerted by the piston

• Flow rate determines the velocity of the piston
• Note push and pull forces are different.

Problem

Cylinder sequencing

Cylinder sequencing

Cylinder sequencing

Process control Valves

Valve types

Quick opening
Quick opening
An inherent flow characteristic

in which a maximum flow
coefficient is achieved with
minimal closure member travel
In a control valve, the quick

opening valve plug is used
primarily for on-off
service;

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Linear
Linear

that can be represented by a
straight line on a rectangular
plot of flow coefficient (Cv)
versus rated travel. Therefore
equal increments of travel
provide equal increments of
flow co-efficient
The linear valve plug is commonly

specified for liquid level control

Equal percentage
Equal percentage

that, for equal increments of
rated travel, will ideally give
equal percentage changes of
the flow coefficient (Cv)
Valves with an equal percentage

flow characteristic are generally
used on pressure control
applications

Types
Different cage designs for

achieving different valve
characteristics

Linear control valve

Equal percentage valves

Equal percentage valves

Control Valve Sizing

Fluid control system

Rotary actuators

Thank you

Mechatronics
DECAZG511
BITS Pilani Lecture

Pilani Campus
Digital Logic

N.O / N.C
A-2
A-1
A
A-2
A-1

PLC architecture

AND Gate

OR Gate

NOT Gate

NAND Gate (AND + NOT)

NOR Gate (OR + NOT)

XOR (Exclusive OR)

Arrangement

NOT Gate Hardware
When the transistor is off, no current flows

5 Volts through the collector-emitter path. In this way,
the circuit’s output is HIGH when its input is
LOW.
When voltage is present at the input, the
transistor turns on, allowing current to flow
through the collector-emitter circuit directly to
ground. This ground path creates a shortcut
that bypasses the output, which causes the
output to go LOW.
In this way, the output is HIGH when the input

is LOW and LOW when the input is HIGH.

Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra
Reduced the number of operators from seven in the original expression

(including the inversion) to three in the final expression. This is important
because it reduces the number of gates required to build the circuit.

De Morgan’s Law *
A+B=A.B
A.B=A+B

De Morgan’s Law *

Example
An electronic switch that uses digital logic is to be developed for switching the lights on and off in an art
gallery. The switch has to be turned on at 7:00 p.m. and turned off at 6:00 a.m. Also, if there are people
in the gallery and the light that enters the gallery from outside is inadequate, the lights have to be turned
on regardless of the time of the day.
There are 3 sensors (Human, Light, Timer) – Timer goes high if time is between 6.00 AM to 7.00 PM.
The logic state of the people sensor is denoted by p, that of the light sensor is denoted by l, and that of
the time sensor is denoted by t.
The output of the logic circuit is denoted by s
P s
l
t

Parity Generator (XOR gates)
Bias bit is 0 if Odd parity
Bias bit is 1 if Even parity
XOR Gates (Truth table)

XNOR

Comparator (XNOR – XOR +NOT)

Logic types
Combinational Logic,
depends only on present
input(s)
Sequential Logic,
Considers earlier data
also, therefore needs
memory

S – R Flip Flop (Memory Device)

Alarm circuit using Flip flop
A phototransistor might be used as the
sensor.
When it is illuminated it gives a virtually 0 V
input to S,
When the illumination ceases it gives about

5 V input to S.
When the light beam is interrupted, S

becomes 1 and the output from the flip-flop
becomes 1 and the alarm sounds.
The output will remain as 1 even when S

changes to 0.
The alarm can only be stopped if the reset

switch is momentarily opened to produce a
5 V input to R
Karnaugh Maps

Karnaugh Maps

Karnaugh Maps

Karnaugh Maps

Programmable logic controller
1 Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity

and noise.
2 Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller
3 Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming

language which is primarily concerned with logic and switching
operations.
PLC architecture

Sourcing and Sinking of PLC
Field devices connected to the positive
side of the field power supply are
classified as sourcing field
devices.
Conversely, field devices connected to

the negative side or DC common of the
field power supply are
sinking field devices
It is important know the type of input or output concerned so that it can be

correctly connected to the PLC. Thus, sensors with sourcing outputs should be
connected to sinking PLC inputs and sensors with sinking outputs should be
connected to sourcing PLC inputs. The interface with the PLC will not function and
damage may occur if this guideline is not followed.
Types of power supply to PLC

Input and Output module

I/O address format

Ladder symbols

PLC Processor Scan

Ladder Programming
Each rung must start with an input or inputs

and must end with at least one output.
The term input is used for a control action, such

as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an
input to the PLC.
The term output is used for a device connected

to the output of a PLC, e.g. a motor.
Internal
Relays

Latching circuits
When the input A contacts close, there is an

output.
However, when there is an output,

another set of contacts associated with the
output closes.
These contacts form an OR logic gate system

with the input contacts. Thus, even if the
input A opens, the circuit will still maintain the
output energised.
The only way to release the output is by

operating the normally closed contact B.

PLC Processor Scan
Scan 1 yields PB as I, Scan 2 yields PL2 as 1, PL4 as 1……….

PLC Processor Scan
PB1
Home Work!

Multiple contacts from one coil 10

Latching circuit Application
There are often situations where it is necessary to

hold an output energised, even when the input
ceases.
A simple example of such a situation is a motor

which is started by pressing a push button switch.


Ladder Diagram – Ex -1

Ladder Diagram – Ex-2

Ladder Diagram – Ex-3

Ladder Diagram – Ex 4
Test circuits, where you would like to check operation of

system before commissioning

Ladder Diagram – Ex 5

Sequencing of cylinders (A+ B+ A- B-)

Sequencing of cylinders (A+ B+ B- A-)

TIMERS

Repetition of Output coils

Reverse Power flow

Shift registers

Shift registers
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509
Shift registers – Ice cream cone Machine
We have 4 steps.
1) First we verify the cone is not broken. Next http://home.isr.uc.pt/~lino/AIR/Arquivo/PLC_T
we put ice cream inside the cone.(turn on utor/shift.htm
output 500)
2) Next we add peanuts.(turn on output 501)
3) And finally we add sprinkles.(turn on

output 502)
4) If the cone is broken we obviously don't

want to add ice cream and the other items

Shift registers – Ice cream cone Machine
We have 4 steps.
1) First we verify the cone is not broken. Next http://home.isr.uc.pt/~lino/AIR/Arquivo/PLC_T
we put ice cream inside the cone.(turn on utor/shift.htm
output 500)
2) Next we add peanuts.(turn on output 501)
3) And finally we add sprinkles.(turn on

output 502)
4) If the cone is broken we obviously don't

want to add ice cream and the other items

Master Control

512
Jump control Relays

513
Analog – Digital converter

514
Proportional controller

515
Proportional controller
Rung 0 reads the ADC and stores the
temperature value in data register DR1.
Rung 1, the data register DR2 is used to store the set point
temperature. Rung 2 uses the subtract function
to subtract the values held in data registers DR1 and DR2
and store the result in data register DR3, i.e. this data
register holds the error value.
Rung 3 multiply function is used, in this case to multiply the

value in data register DR3 by the proportional gain of 4.
Rung 4 uses an internal relay which can

be programmed to switch off DR3 if it takes a negative
value.
Rung 5 the data register DR3 is reset to zero when the

input is switched off.
516
Thank you

Mechatronics

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BITS Pilani Lecture

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Examples are controls of ,

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Steam Rice cooker-

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Getting fast replaced by mechatronics principles

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BITS Pilani Lecture

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An amber coloured LED with a forward volt

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Used as filters, motors,

Φ- Magnetic flux (Weber)

Pure Resistance Circuit Pure Capacitance Circuit Pure Inductive Circuit

Unlike Resistor which just impedes the current (Constant Ohms),

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The Thevenin resistance is defined as the resistance that

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BITS Pilani Lecture

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Neon atom, Poor

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At room temperatures, valence electrons leave the orbit and

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Because these materials will donate an extra electron

By using a trivalent impurity, one whose atoms have

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P type Semi conductor

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• The base is lightly doped.