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• Replacement projects: these are projects where the firm must either:
replace worn out equipment or invest in new equipment that is expected
to lower current production costs and/or increase current sales.
• Expansion projects: these are projects where the firms are constructing a
new plant or expanding capacity of the existing one.
• New products and services: these are projects where the firms are
diversifying current business operations to maintain a competitive edge.
Categories of Capital Budgeting Process
Mandatory projects: these would be projects that are required by the government
or by the regulatory authority
Decision rule:
For independent projects: If NPV > 0, accept.
If NPV < 0, reject.
For mutually exclusive projects:
Accept the project with higher and positive NPV.
Example:
• Compute NPV for projects A and B given the following data:
• Cost of capital: 10%
• Expected net after tax cash flows
Year Project A (in $) Project B (in $)
0 -1,000 -1,000
1 500 100
2 400 300
3 300 400
4 100 600
Example:
• = 78.82
= 49.18
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
IRR is the discount rate that makes the present value of future cash flows equal to
the investment outlay. In other words, IRR is the discount rate which makes NPV
equal to 0.
Decision rule:
For independent projects:
If IRR> required rate of return (or cost of capital), accept the project.
If IRR< required rate of return (or cost of capital), reject the project.
0 -1000 -1000
1 500 100
2 400 300
3 300 400
4 100 600
Example:
Project A:
Payback Period
The payback period is the number of years it takes to recover the
initial cost of the investment.
Example: 2 projects with an initial cash outlay of $20,000 with
following free cash flows.
Project A Project B
1 $ 8000 $10,000
2 4000 10,000
3 3,000
4 5,000
5 10,000
Payback Period
The payback period is the number of years it takes to recover the
initial cost of the investment.
Example: 2 projects with an initial cash outlay of $20,000 with
following free cash flows.
Project A Project B
3 3,000 (5,000)
4 5,000 0
5 10,000 12,000
• Advantages:
- Easy to calculate
- Easy to explain
- Indicator of project liquidity. A project with a small payback period is
more liquid than one with a longer payback period as the initial
investment is recovered more quickly.
• Drawbacks:
- Does not consider cash flows after payback period.
- It does not consider the time value of money as the cash flows are not
discounted at the project’s required rate of return.
- Does not consider the risk of a project.
Discounted Payback Period
Discounted payback method uses the present value of the estimated
cash flows; it gives the number of years to recover the initial
investment in present value terms.
Payback period = Last year with negative cumulative cash flow + unrecovered cost at the
beginning of the next year/ cash flow in the next year.
120
Payback period = 2 + = 2.35 years
340
209.91
Discounted payback period = 2 + = 2.82 years.
255.45
• Drawbacks of discounted payback method:
• Does not consider any cash flows beyond the payback period.
• Poor measure of profitability as there may be negative cash flows after the
• discounted payback period which may result in a negative NPV.
Profitability index
Profitability Index is the present value of a project’s future cash flows
divided by the initial investment.
0 ? 0 240
5 ? 5 167
10 ? 10 107
22 ? 22 0
NPV profile
0 240 400
5 167.35 258.16
10 107.17 146.41
15 56.79 57.4
18.92 22.82 0
20 14.19 -14.19
21.86 0 -37.22
Crossover
Ranking conflicts between NPV and IRR
• For single and independent projects with conventional cash flows,
there is no conflict between NPV and IRR decision rules. However,
for mutually exclusive projects the two criteria may give conflicting
results.
• What is a conventional cash flows?
1. Which project do you select according to the NPV rule using a rate
of 10%?
2. Which project do you select according to the IRR rule?
3. Show the NPV profile for both projects.
NPV (in $ millions) IRR (in %)
1. Based on the NPV rule, the project with the highest NPV, project Y
is selected.
2. Based on the IRR rule, the project with the highest IRR, project X is
selected.
3. Whenever NPV and IRR rank two mutually exclusive projects
differently, we must always choose the one with the higher NPV – in
this case, project Y.
Reasons for going with NPV instead of IRR:
Advantages Advantages
Direct measure of expected increase in value of the firm. Shows the return on each dollar invested.
Theoretically the best method. Allows us to compare return with the required rate.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Does not consider project size. Incorrectly assumes that cash flows are reinvested at IRR
rate. The correct assumption is that intermediate cash
flows are reinvested at the required rate.
Calculation of net income assuming interest is tax-deductible Calculation of net income assuming interest is not tax-
(Normal situation) deductible
Interest 10 EBT 50
Debt 20 20
Equity 20 80
• Use the debt rating approach when a reliable current market price
for a company’s debt is not available.
• Estimate before-tax cost of debt based on comparable bonds
▪ Similar rating
▪ Similar maturity
• Use the company’s marginal tax rate to determine after-tax cost.
Cost of Preferred Stock
• The cost of preferred stock is the cost that a company has
committed to pay to preferred stockholders in the form of
preferred dividend. Unlike common dividend which is variable,
preferred dividend is usually fixed and paid before common
shareholders.
• The cost of preferred stock can be computed as:
Example
A company issues preferred stock with par value $100 that is currently
valued at $125 per share. The preferred dividend is $5 per share. The
marginal tax rate is 33 percent. What is the cost of preferred stock?
The cost of equity is equal to the risk free rate plus a premium for
bearing the security’s market risk. The premium is the beta for the
security multiplied by the equity risk premium.
Example
In a developing market, the risk-free rate is 10% and the equity risk
premium is 6%. The equity beta for a given company is 2. What is the
cost of equity using the CAPM approach?