CELL DIVISION LESSON 6

Chapter
8

CELL DIVISION PLAYS MANY

IMPORTANT ROLES
The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division.
�Passing identical material to cellular offspring is a crucial function of cell division.

A yeast cell producing a

daughter cell by
asexual reproduction

Reproduction Growth & Development

Renewal
 Chapter
8

ASEXUAL vs. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
produces offspring that are all combines genes from two parents,
genetic copies of a single leading to genetically diverse
parent. offspring.

Reproduction of an amoeba Fertilization

 Chapter
8
PROKARYOTES
REPRODUCE BY
BINARY FISSION
Prokaryotes reproduce asexually
by binary fission.
• As the cell replicates its single
circular chromosome, the copies
move apart,
• the plasma membrane pinches
inward, and
• more cell wall is made, which
eventually divides the parent cell
into two daughter cells.
THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
CYCLE AND MITOSIS
 Chapter
8
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF
THE GENETIC MATERIAL
IN EUKARYOTES
▪ A eukaryotic cell has many more genes than a prokaryotic cell, and they are
grouped into multiple chromosomes in the nucleus.
▪ Individual chromosomes are visible only when the cell is in the process of
dividing; otherwise, chromosomes are thin, loosely packed chromatin fibers
too small to be seen.

Video: Cell division in Animal

 THE LARGE, COMPLEX
CHROMOSOMES OF
EUKARYOTES
DUPLICATE WITH EACH
▪ CELL
Before a cellDIVISION
starts dividing, the
chromosomes duplicate,
producing sister chromatids
(containing identical DNA) that are
joined together along their lengths
by proteins, most closely at a
region called the centromere.
▪ Cell division involves the
separation of sister chromatids
and results in two daughter cells,
each containing a complete and
identical set of chromosomes.
 Chapter
8

THE EUKARYOTIC
CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle includes two main stages:

▪ Interphase (growth phase)

• ≈ 90% of the total time
• Double everything in the
cytoplasm. (The cell’s metabolic activity
is very high.)
• DNA replication occurs.
▪ Mitotic (M) phase (division
phase)
• Mitosis: division of the nucleus
• Cytokinesis: division of the
cytoplasm
 • The mitotic spindle is
• begins when the two • Two daughter nuclei
• Chromosomes are • The chromatin fibers • The nuclear envelope fully formed. centromeres of each form in the cell.
duplicated within the become more tightly breaks into fragments. • The chromosomes are chromosome come apart, • By the end of
nucleus, but cannot be coiled, condensing into separating the sister
• The microtubules invade aligned on the chromatids.
telophase, the
seen individually chromosomes. Each metaphase plate. chromatin fibers
the nuclear area,
because they are not duplicated chromosome appears
• The two liberated uncoil, and the
condensed yet. as two identical sister chromatids. reaching the more • The kinetochores of
condensed the sister chromatids daughter chromosomes mitotic spindle
• Two centrosomes have • The mitotic spindle chromosome. are attached to begin moving toward disappears.
formed by duplication. begins to form. microtubules coming opposite as their • Cytokinesis usually
Centrosomes are regions that Centrosomes move away from • Each sister chromatid kinetochore microtubules
organize the microtubules of the each other. has a kinetochore, a from opposite poles. occurs
shorten. The cell elongates as the
 Chapter
8
CYTOKINESIS
DIFFERS FOR PLANT
AND ANIMAL CELLS

⮚ Cleavage of an animal cell

In animals, cytokinesis occurs
when a cell constricts, forming a
cleavage furrow in which
contracting microfilaments pinch
the cell in two.

⮚ Cell plate formation in a plant

In plants,
cell it involves a fusion of
vesicles that forms new plasma
membranes and new cell walls
between the cells.
THE RATE OF CELL Anchorage
DIVISION IS AFFECTED BY
ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS Single layer of
▪ Anchorage dependence cells
Most normal cells divide only when
attached to a surface.
Removal of cells
▪ Density-dependent inhibition
The cultured cells continue dividing
until they touch one another. Cells
Restoration of
form a single layer.
single layer by
cell division

Cancer cells
forming clump of
overlapping cells
 Chapter

THE RATE OF CELL 8

DIVISION IS AFFECTED BY
ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
▪ Most animal cells divide only when
stimulated by growth factors, and
some do not divide at all.
e.g. VEGF, PDGF
THE CELL CYCLE CONTROL
SYSTEM
▪ A set of molecules that triggers and
coordinates key events in the cell cycle
▪ The cell cycle is regulated at certain
checkpoints by both internal and external
signals.
• G1, G2 & M checkpoints

▪ Signals affecting critical checkpoints

determine whether a cell will go through the
complete cycle and divide.
• At the G1 check point, if a go-ahead signal never arrives,
the cell will switch to a permanently nondividing state (G0
phase).
• Many cells, such as mature nerve cells and muscle cells, in
▪ Growth factors signal the cell cycle control
system.
The binding of growth factors to specific receptors
triggers a signal transduction pathway which is necessary
for cell division.
 Chapter
8

GROWING OUT OF CONTROL, CANCER CELLS

PRODUCE MALIGNANT TUMORS
Cancer cells divide
excessively.
�Many cancer cells have
defective cell cycle control
systems.

Tumor: An abnormal mass

of rapidly
�Benign growing
tumor : tumorcells
that remains at its original site
�Malignant tumor : tumor that can spread into neighboring tissue and to other parts of the body
�Metastasis : The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

Treatment
�Surgery, High-energy radiation & Chemotherapy (e.g. Taxol)
�Tailoring treatment based upon the tumor’s specific genetic profile (e.g. Table 8.10)
MEIOSIS & SEXUAL LIFE
CYCLE
 Chapter

CHROMOSOMES ARE MATCHED IN 8

HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS
▪ In human, a somatic cell (typical
body cell) has 46 chromosomes
made up of two sets of 23, one set
from each parent.
▪ Homologous chromosomes
• A pair of chromosomes of the same
length, centromere position, and
staining pattern
• carry genes for the same
characteristics at the same place, or
locus.

▪ Human somatic cells have 22 Karyotype: A display of condensed

chromosomes arranged in pairs, starting with
homologous pairs of autosomes,
2n=46
the longest ones.
and one pair of sex
chromosomes.
 Chapter
Haploid gametes (n = 23) Key
GAMETES HAVE 8

n
Haploid stage (n) A SINGLE SET
Diploid stage (2n)
Egg cell
OF
n CHROMOSOME
Sperm cell S
▪ Cells with 2 sets of homologous
chromosomes are diploid.
Meiosis Fertilization
▪ Gametes (eggs and sperm) are
haploid cells with a single set of
chromosomes.
Ovary Testi
s ▪ The human life cycle begins when a
haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg
2n during fertilization.
The resulting fertilized egg (zygote) is diploid.
Diploid
zygote ▪ Gametes are formed by a modified type
Mitosis and
(2n = 46) of cell division called meiosis, which
Multicellular development occurs only in reproductive organs
diploid adults (ovary and testis).
(2n = 46)
MEIOSIS REDUCES THE NUMBER OF SETS
OF CHROMOSOMES FROM TWO (DIPLOID)
TO ONE (HAPLOID)
 Chapter

MEIOSIS REDUCES THE 8

CHROMOSOME NUMBER FROM

DIPLOID TO HAPLOID
MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

Chromosomes Homologous Pairs of Pairs of Two haploid During another round of cell division, the
duplicate. chromosomes homologous homologous cells form; sister chromatids finally separate;
pair up and chromosomes chromosomes chromosomes four haploid daughter cells result,
exchange line up. split up. are still doubled. containing single chromosomes.
segments. No replication
occurs between
meiosis I and
 Chapter
8

Result: Two genetically identical diploid Result: Four genetically unique haploid
cells cells
Used for: Growth, tissue repair, asexual reproduction Used for: Sexual reproduction
 Chapter
8

GENETIC VARIATION AMONG

OFFSPRING
The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is
responsible for most of the variation that arises each generation.
Three mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation arising from
sexual reproduction:
1. Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis
2. Random fertilization
3. Crossing Over
 Chapter
8
1.INDEPENDENT ORIENTATION OF
CHROMOSOMES AT METAPHASE I

The number of combinations for chromosomes is 2n, where n = haploid number of

 Chapter
8

2.RANDOM FERTILIZATION

In humans, each male and female gamete

represents one of about 8.4 million (223) possible
chromosome combinations due to independent
assortment .
⮚The fusion of a male gamete with a
female gamete during fertilization will
produce a zygote with any of about 70
trillion (223 x 223) diploid combinations.
The number of possibilities will further increase if
we factor in the variation brought about by
crossing over.
 Chapter
8
Homologous chromosomes may carry
different versions of genes for the same
?
characteristics at corresponding loci.
 3. CROSSING
OVER

▪ Crossing over is an exchange of

corresponding segments between
nonsister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
▪ Genetic recombination, which results
from crossing over during prophase I of
meiosis, increases variation further.
 Chapter
ACCIDENTS DURING 8

MEIOSIS CAN ALTER

CHROMOSOME
NUMBER
Nondisjunction: A pair of
homologous chromosome or a pair
of sister chromatids fail to separate.
Nondisjunction is estimated to be involved
in 10-30% of human conceptions and is
the main reason for pregnancy loss.
⮚Aneuploidy: An abnormal number of
a particular chromosome resulting from
the fertilization of gametes in which
nondisjunction occurred.
• Trisomy (2n + 1) & Monosomy (2n – 1)
⮚Polyploidy: More than two complete
sets of chromosomes resulting from
complete nondisjunction during gamete
formation.
• Triploidy (3n), Tetraploidy (4n), …
 • An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome

• Nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes during meiosis can result in individuals with a missing or
extra X or Y.
 Chapter
ALTERATIONS OF 8

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
loss of a chromosome segment reversal of a chromosome segment

repeat of a chromosome segment Segments of two nonhomologous chromosomes swap locations with each other
ALTERATIONS OF Chapter
8

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
CAN CAUSE BIRTH DEFECTS
AND CANCER
Cri du chat syndrome
Chronic myelogenous leukemia
(CML)

Reciprocal translocation during

mitosis of cells that will become
WBCs
 Chapter
8

YOU SHOULD NOW BE ABLE

TO
1. Compare the parent-offspring relationship in asexual and sexual reproduction.
2. Describe the stages of the cell cycle.
3. List the phases of mitosis and meiosis. Describe the events characteristic of each
phase.
4. Explain how anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors control cell
division.
5. Explain how cancerous cells are different from healthy cells.
6. Describe the functions of mitosis.
7. Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes and between diploid cells and haploid
cells.
8. Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.
9. Compare mitosis and meiosis, noting similarities and differences.
10. Explain how genetic variation is produced in sexually reproducing organisms.