WATER TREATMENT

WATER TECHNOLOGY
Structure of water molecule:.

O- 1s2 2s2 2p2x 2p1y 2p1z

Four sp3 hybrid

sp3
orbitals
hybridisation
H-1s1
H-1s1
..
..
O
H H
Water molecule is formed by the overlap between
half-filled 1s -orbitals of two hydrogen atoms(1s1)
& two half -filled (2p1y 2p1z ) orbitals of oxygen(1s2 ;
2s2 ;p2x 2p1y 2p1z ). As both overlaps are co-axial,
the two bonds will be of sigma type. The bond
angle between H-O-H is 1040.28’ & the shape of
H2O molecule is v shaped or bent.
Sources of water
(a) Rain water : As a result of extensive heat, water is
evaporated from sea. Since rain water is the product of
a naturally occuring distillation process; it is considered
to be the purest form of water. However during its
journey through atmosphere to the earth, many gases
from the atmosphere like SO2, CO2,, NH3 dissolve in
it.
(b) River water: The rain water in the hilly region & that
from the snow melted mountain regions, flows in the
form rivers. The original river water, at its source, is
very pure. But as it flows through the plains , it takes up
suspended impurities. It is highly impure form of water.
 (c ) Sea water: All rivers , along with their all types of
impurities drain into sea. At the surface of the sea ,
there is a continuous evaporation of water . This
makes water continuously concentrated & rich in
impurities. Hence , sea water is the most impure form
of water. On an avg , sea water contains 3.5 %
dissolved salts , out of which 2.6% is NaCl.
(d)Underground water: About 1/3 of the rain water,
percolates into the soil. As it passes to the deeper
strata, many soluble salts get dissolved in it. Water
continues this downwards movement, till it touches
some hard, imperviuos rocks. Then it moves upwards
& emergs out in the form of springs. It is always very
clear in appearance. However it contains a large
amount of dissolved impurities.
IMPURITIES IN WATER
A. SUSPENDED IMPURITIES:
Inorganic matter like clay, sand, mud, industrial waste, & organic
matter like algae, vegetable & animal decay product, oil etc.
present in water is in suspended form. These impurities impart
colour , odour, & bad taste to natural water. Due to present of
these impurities water became turbid.
B. DISSOLVED IMPURITIES:
(a) Gases: Gases like carbon dioxide, oxygen, oxide of nitrogen,
hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide etc. easily soluble in natural
water. These impurities impart colour , odour, & corrosion .
(b) Salts: Salts like chloride, sulphate, carbonate, & bicarbonate of
Ca, Mg, Na, K etc. easily soluble in natural water. Ca & Mg salts
impart hardness in water while Na & K salts may impart alkalinity
in water.

.
C. COLLOIDAL IMPURITIES:
The charged particles ( either + or -) having particle size
about 10-4 -10-7 cm are colloidal particles. The presence
of colloidal particles in water produce turbidity in water .
Fine mud, finely divided clay, silica, decayed leaves,
aluminium hydroxide,(Al(OH)-4),ferrous hydroxide etc.
are colloidal particles in water .
D. BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES:
The presence of micro-organism like bacteria, algae,
protozoa etc. in water is known as biological impurities.
They produce turbidity , colour, odour & even contribute
to corrosion. Some of biological impurities are diseases
producing micro-organism .
Hard water & soft water :
Water which does not produce lather but produce
curd like precipitate (white scum) on shaking with
soap solution is known as hard water. This is
because it contains dissolved salts of Ca & Mg.

Water which produce lather (foam) instantly on

shaking with soap solution is known as soft water.
This is because it does not contains dissolved
salts.
Hardness: Hardness is defined as that property of
water which prevents lathering with soap.
When CO2 from air dissolved in rain water &
react with salt of Ca or Mg it form Ca (HCO3)2 &
Mg (HCO3)2 which are highly soluble in water &
are responsible to make the water hard.
2C17 H35 COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO) 2 Ca+2NaCl
Sodium stearate Calcium stearate
C17 H35 COONa +H2 O  C17 H35 COOH + NaOH
Soap Stearic acid
C17 H35 COOH + C17 H35 COONa  (C17 H35 CO) 2O+ NaOH
Stearic acid Sodium stearate Stearic unhydride (lather)
Types of hardness:
A.Temporary or carbonate hardness: It is a hardness which
can be removed by mere boiling.This hardness is due to the
presence of salts like bicarbonates of Ca & Mg.

Ca (HCO3)2  H2O + CO2  + CaCO3

Mg (HCO3)2  H2O + CO2  + MgCO3

B.Permanent or non-carbonate hardness: Permanent hardness

in water is due to the presence of chlorides & sulphates of Ca
& Mg. Since it can not be removed by boiling or any other
simple method, hence it is called Permanent hardness.
Degree of hardness:
A.Parts per million(ppm) : It is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness per 106 parts of water is known as parts per million
1ppm= 1 part f CaCO3 eq hardness in 10,00,000 or 106 parts of
water .
B.Milligram per litre (mg/l): It is the no. of mg of CaCO3
equivalent hardness present per litre of water.
1mg/l=1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness of one liter of water
= 1 ppm.
C. Clarke’s degree (0Cl): It is the no. of parts of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness present per 70000 parts of water.
10 Clarke=1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70000 parts
of water.
Grains per imperial gallon (gpg): In English system, hardness is
expressed in terms of grains {1 grain = 1/7,000 lb} per gallon(10
lbs; i.e. parts per 70,000 parts.
D. Degree French: It is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
per 105 parts of water
10 French =1 part of CaCO3 eq hardness in 105 parts of water .
Inter relationship between various units of hardness:
1ppm= 1 mg/l =0.10 French = 0.070 Clark
Calculation of degree of hardness:
Degree of hardness of water is expressed in term of equivalent
amount of calcium carbonate, because
a) CaCO3 is highly insoluble salt
b) The Mol wt of CaCO3 is 100 which make the calculation easier
( eq wt =50)

Equivalents of CaCO3 hardness

[Mass of hardness X [Chemical equivalent of

producing substance] CaCO3(50)]
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Chemical equivalent of hardness
producing substance]

Or = [Mass of hardness producing substance] X Multiplication factor

DISSOLVED MOLAR CHEMICAL MULTI PLICATION FACTOR
SALTS/IONS MASS EQUIVA- FOR EQ OF CaCO3
LENT
Ca (HCO3)2 162 81 100/162
Mg (HCO3)2 146 73 100/146
CaSO4 136 68 100/136
CaCl2 111 55.5 100/111
MgSO4 120 60 100/120
MgCl2 95 47.5 100/95
CaCO3 100 50 100/100
MgCO3 84 42 100/84
CO2 44 22 100/44
Mg(NO3)2 148 74 100/148
HCO3- 61 61 100/122
OH - 17 17 100/34
CO3-- 60 30 100/60
NaAlO2 82 82 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 57 100/114
FeSO4. 7 H2O 278 139 100/278
H+ 1 1 100/2
HCl 36.5 36.5 100/73
Scale & sludge:
In a boiler, water is continuously converted into
steam. Due to continuous evaporation of water the
conc. of dissolve salts increases in the boiler & it
reaches to saturation point.Then the salts start
separating out from the solution in order of their
solubility , the least soluble one separating out first.
The soft, loose & slimy precipitate formed within the
boiler which does not stick up permanently is known
as sludge. Substances like CaCl2, MgCl2, MgSO4,
MgCO3 etc, which have greater solubility in hot water
than in cold water, form sludge in boiler. Sludges are
formed at comparative cooler portion of the boiler.
Scale:
The hard & sticky precipitate formed on the inner walls
of boiler is known as scale. Scales are formed by
carbonate, sulphate ,silicates, phosphate & oxide of
Ca & Mg(OH)2, MgSiO3.
Formatiom of scale:
1. Ca (HCO3)2CaCO3 +H2O +CO 2
In high pressure boiler
CaCO3 +H2O  Ca(OH) 2(soluble) + CO 2
2. Deposition of calcium sulphate(CaSO4)
3. Hydrolysis of magnesium salt :
MgCl2 + 2 H2O Mg(OH) 2 (scale)+2HCl
4. Presence of silica: CaCO3 +SiO2 CaSiO3+ CO 2
Removal of scales
(a) It can be removed by piece of wood, scrapper, knife
or wire brush, if the scale are loosely bound.
(b) If they are brittle in nature then thermal shock is
given to it.
(c) It can be removed otherwise by dissolving in
chemicals like 5-15% HCl or by adding EDTA.
PREVENTION OF SCALE: INTERNAL TRETMENT
Internal treatment consists of adding chemicals directly
to the water in the boilers for removing dangerous scale
forming salts which were not completely removed in the
external treatment for water softening. This is mainly
used as a corrective treatment to remove the slight
residual hardness and also sometimes to remove the
corrosive tendencies in water.
A. Colloidal conditioning: Kerosene, glue,starches,
Tannin, Agar-agar, added into water. These substances
act as protective colloids. They function by surrounding
the minute particles of CaCO3 & CaSO4 & prevent their
coalescence & coagulation.Thus the precipitated scale-
forming salts are maintained in loose suspended form
which can easily be removed by blow-down operation.
Thus the scale formation is prevented.
B. Phosphate conditioning: In high -pressure boilers , scale
formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate, which
reacts with hardness of water forming non-adherent & easily
removable, soft sludge of Ca & Mg phosphates,
which can easily be removed by blow –down operation.
CaCl2 +2Na3PO4  Ca3(PO4)2 +6NaCl
soft sludge

C. Carbonate conditioning: In low -pressure boilers , scale

formation can be avoided by adding sodium carbonate to boiler
water, when CaSO4 is converted into calcium carbonate, which
can easily be removed by blow –down operation.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2 SO4
CaCO3 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 (soluble) +CO2
D. Calgon conditioning : It involves in adding calgon [sodium hexa
meta phosphate] (NaPO3)6 to boiler water. It prevents the scale &
sludge formation by forming soluble complex compound with
CaSO4.
Na2[Na4(PO3)6 ] 2 Na+ + [Na4P6O18]2-

CaSO4 + [Na4P6O18]2- [Ca2 P6O18]2- + 2Na2 SO4

soluble complex
E. Treatment with sodium aluminate: Sodium aluminate gets
hydrolysed yielding NaOH & a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium
hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH+ Al(OH) 3
The sodium hydroxide , so formed , precipipates some of the
magnesium as Mg(OH)2
MgCl2 + 2NaOH Mg(OH) 2 +2NaCl
The flocculant precipipate of Mg(OH)2 plus Al(OH) 3 , produced
inside the boiler , entrapes finely suspended & colloidal
impurities, including oil drops & silica .The loose ppt which can
F. Complexometric method: It involves adding 1.5
% alkaline (pH=8.5) solution of EDTA to feed
water. The EDTA binds the scale forming
cations to form stable & soluble complex. As a
result , the scale & sludge formation in boiler is
prevented.

Ca++ /Mg++ + Na2 EDTA

Ca /Mg -EDTA + 2Na+
soluble Complex
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT : It is a type of boiler corrosion,
caused by using highly alkaline water in the boiler. During
softening by lime-soda process, free Na2CO3 combine with
water to give sodium hydroxide & carbon dioxide. It is
characterised by the formation of irregular intergranular cracks
on the boiler metal, perticularly at places of high local stress ,
such as bends & joints.
Na2CO3 + H2O  2NaOH+ CO2 ;
2NaOH + Fe  Na2FeO2+ H2
The NaOH enters into the hair cracks present in the inner side of
the boiler. This caustic soda attacks the surrounding area forming
sodium ferroate (Na2FeO2). The iron surrounded by the
concentrated NaOH becomes the anodic while the iron with dilute
NaOH becomes cathodic.
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT CAN BE
AVOIDED
a. By using sodium phosphate
b. By adding sodium sulphate to boiler
water
c. By adding tannin or lignin to boiler
water which helps in blocking the
infiltration of NaOH solution hair
cracks
BOILER CORROSION
It is decay of boiler material by a chemical or
Electrochemical attack by its environment. Main reasons
for boiler corrosion are:
A. Dissolved oxygen: 2 Fe+ 2 H2O+ O2  2Fe(OH)2 
4Fe(OH)2 +O2  [2Fe2O3. 2 H2O ]
ferrous hydroxide Rust
Removal of dissolved oxygen:
a.2Na2SO3 + O2  2Na2SO4
N2 H4 + O2 N2 + 2 H2O
Hydrazine
Na2S + 2O2 Na2SO4 ;
b.By mechanical de-aeration
Water is spread in a perforated plate-fitted tower, heated
from sides & connected to vacuum pump. High temp,
low pressure & large exposed surface (provided by
perforated plate) reduces the dissolved oxygen, CO2
etc. in water.
B. Dissolved carbon dioxide :
CO2 + H2O H2 CO3 (carbonic acid)
Mg (HCO3)2  H2O + CO2  + MgCO3
Removal of CO2
a.2NH4OH +CO2  (NH4 ) 2CO 3
b. By mechanical de-aeration
c. By lime treament
CO2+Ca(OH) 2CaCO3 +H2O
C. Acid from dissolved salts
MgCl2 +2H2O  Mg(OH) 2 +2HCl
Fe+ 2 HCl  FeCl2 +H2
FeCl2+ 2 H2OFe(OH) 2 +2HCl
Removal of acid
a. By adding base
HCl + NaOH  H2O +NaCl
b. by adding lime-soda
2H++Ca(OH) 2 Ca++ +2H2O
Ca++ + Na2CO3  2Na+ + CaCO3
PRIMING & FOAMING
When a boiler is steaming rapidly , some particles of the liquid
water are carried along with the steam. This process of wet steam
formation is called priming. Priming is mainly attributed to the
presence of suspended impurities & to some extent to dissolved
impurities in the water. Algae & vegetable growth in tanks can
also lead to priming. Priming may also be caused by (a) very high
water level in the boiler (b) steam velocities high enough to carry
droplets of water into the steam pipe (c) presence of excessive
foam (d) faulty boiler design.
Priming can be avoided :
(a) Fitting mechanical steam purifier(Spiral or cyclone baffles or a
series of baffles plates). (b) Avoiding rapid change in steaming
rate.(c) Maintaining low water levels. (d) Softening & filtration of
boiler feed water. (e) minimizing foaming
Foaming is the production of small but persistent foam
or bubbles at the water surface in boilers which do not
break easily. These bubbles are carried along with
steam leading to excessive priming. In steam raising,
the bubbles of steam may be stabilised because of the
accumulation of soluble salts in water. Clay or organic
matter in raw water , oil or grease & finely divided
particles of sludge may also cause foaming.

Foaming can be avoided:

a. Adding anti-foaming chemicals like castor oil,
polyamide antifoamer etc.
b. Oil is removed by coagulation with sodium
aluminate, aluminium hydroxide or hydrous silicic acid,
mechanical separator(metal plates) etc.
Methods of softening hard water:
A.Lime- soda process: Water used for industrial
purposes (such as for steam generation) should be
sufficiently pure. It sd be freed from hardness-
producing salts before put to use. The process of
removing hardness-producing salts from water , is
known as softening of water. A Lime- soda process is
suitable method to remove temporary as well as
permanent hardness of water so that water become
softer & utilize for industrial purpose. This process is
used to convert soluble salts of Ca & Mg into insoluble
Ca CO3 , and Mg (OH) 2 by adding lime & soda.
There are two types
Cold lime-soda process
Hot lime-soda process
CALCULATION OF LIME-SODA REQUIREMENT

Constituent Reaction Need

Ca++( Perm. Ca) Ca++ + Na2CO3  2Na+ + CaCO3 S

Mg++( Perm. Mg) Mg+++Ca(OH) 2 Ca++ +Mg(OH) 2 L+S

Ca++ + Na2CO3  2Na+ + CaCO3 L-S
HCO3-(e. g., NaHCO3-) 2HCO3- +Ca(OH) 2 CaCO3 +H2O+CO3– L
Ca (HCO3)2(Temp Ca) Ca (HCO3)2+Ca(OH) 22CaCO3 +2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2( Temp Mg) Mg (HCO3)2+2Ca(OH) 22CaCO3 +2H2O +Mg(OH) 2 2L
CO2 CO2+Ca(OH) 2CaCO3 +H2O L
H+(Free acids,HCl, H2SO4) 2H++Ca(OH) 2 Ca++ +2H2O
Ca++ + Na2CO3  2Na+ + CaCO3 L+S
Coagulants: FeSO4 Fe+++Ca(OH) 2 Ca++ +Fe(OH) 2
2Fe(OH) 2 +H2O + O2 2Fe(OH)3 L+S
Ca++ + Na2CO3  2Na+ + CaCO3
Al2(SO4) 2Al++++3Ca(OH) 2
3
3Ca++ +2Al (OH)3 L+S
3Ca++ + 3Na2CO3  6Na+ + 3CaCO3
NaAlO2 NaAlO2+2H2OAl(OH)3 +NaOH
2NaOH is eq to Ca(OH) 2 -L
CALCULATION OF LIME-SODA REQUIREMENT

Now 100 parts by mass of CaCO3 are equivalent to:

a) 74 parts of Ca(OH) 2 &
b) 106 parts of Na2CO3

Lime requirement for softening =74/100[Temp

Ca+++2x Temp Mg+++Perm(Mg+++ Fe+++ Al++++ CO2
+ H+(HCl or H2SO4) + HCO3- - NaAlO2 all in terms
of eq CaCO3]

Soda requirement for softening =106/100[Perm Ca++

+Mg+++ Fe+++ Al++++ H+(HCl or H2SO4) - HCO3- all
in terms of eq CaCO3]
B Permutit or Zeolite process:
Permutit or Zeolite is represented by Na2P or Na2Z
respectively. Here P or Z stands for O.Al2O3.xSiO2
.yH2O. These are nothing but silicates holding the Na
ions very loosely & Formula becomes
Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2 .yH2O.
When hard water passes through a bed of active
granular sodium zeolite , the Ca & Mg ions are taken
upby the zeolite & simultaneously releasing the
equivalent sodium ions in exchange for them.
Ca (HCO3)2 + Na2P  CaP  +2NaHCO3
Mg (HCO3)2 + Na2P  MgP  +2NaHCO3
CaCl2 + Na2P  CaP  +2NaCl
MgSO4+ Na2P  MgP  + Na2 SO4
Relatively small quantites of Fe & Mn , may also
get removed simultaneously.
Fe(HCO3)2 + Na2P  FeP  +2NaHCO3
Mn (HCO3)2 + Na2P  MnP  +2NaHCO3
As soon as Na2P completely converted into
CaP & MgP (exhausted) , it is
regenerated by adding 10%brine solution (NaCl)
CaP + 2 NaCl CaCl2 + Na2P
MgP + 2 NaCl MgCl2 + Na2P
Ion exchange process: ( deionisation or
demineralization)
The hard water is passed first through cation
exchange resin column, which removes all the
cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, etc from it
RH2 + CaCl2 RCa +2HCl
RH2 + MgSO4 RMg +H2 SO4
Then water which is free from cations but acidic
in nature is then passed through anion exchange
resins [R (OH) 2]. Here all anions are removed.
R (OH) 2+2HCl RCl2+2H2O
R (OH) 2+ H2 SO4RSO4+2H2O
When cation exchange resin get exhausted then
it is regenerated by passing dil. HCl or H2SO4
through cation exchange resin tower.
RCa +2HCl RH2 + CaCl2
RMg +H2 SO4 RH2 + MgSO4
Anion exchange resin is regenerated by passing
dil. NaOH or KOH through anion exchange
resin tower.
RCl2+2NaOH R (OH) 2+2NaCl
RSO4+2NaOH R (OH) 2+Na2SO4
Purification of water for domestic use: Water
supplied by municipalities for domestic purposes
must be free from pathogenic bacteria. It should
be clear, colourless and pleasant to taste. It
should be free from excessive dissolved salts,
suspended impurities, harmful microorganisms,
animal & vegetable matter, as well as industrial
effluents. If the water is very hard , certain
amount of softening may be needed.
sedimentation, coagulation, filtration and
sterilisation are the treatment techniques usually
employed depending on the requirements of the
situation.
(i) Screening: In order to remove floating
impurities screens of following kinds are used :
(a) Coarse screen or Trash rack: These screen
consists of a vertical flat steel bars or round
pipes spaced with 5-8 cm of clear opening. (b)
Fine screen: These screens consists of heavy
wire mesh(0.27 mm galvanized steel wire) with
0.5 cm sq opening . (c) Microstrainer: It consists
of a rotating cylindrical frame covered with fine
wire –mesh fabric. These screens must be
continuously cleaned.
(ii) Sedimentation: Sedimentation is a process of
removing relatively large particles (suspended
solids) into large reservoirs of settlement tanks.
Water is allowed to stand undisturbed in big
tanks, about 5 m deep, when most of the
suspended particles settle down at the bottom,
due to the force of gravity. The retention period
in a sedimentation tank ranges from 2-6 hrs or
some days or even weeks. Periodically the
accumulations of the debris are to be scrapped
away.
(iii) Coagulation: Finely divided silica, clay & organic matter does
not settle down easily & hence cannot be removed by simple
sedimentation. Most of these are in colloidal form(e.g.,sols, gels or
emulsion) & are generally negatively charged & hence do not
coalesce because of mutual repulsion. Coagulants are added into
water, it forms an insoluble gelatinous, flocculant ppt, which
adsorbs very fine suspended impurities forming very bigger flocs
& settle down. Aluminium sulphate, when added to natural waters,
hydrolyses in presence of alkali to form colloidal aluminium
hydroxide, which removes the finely divided & colloidal impurities
by neutralising the charge on them as well as by adsorption.
1. Al2(SO4) 3 +Ca(HCO3)2 Al(OH) 3 + 3CaSO4 + CO2
2. NaAlO2 +2H2O  Al(OH) 3 + NaOH
2NaOH+MgSO4 Mg(OH) 2+Na2SO4
3. FeSO4 +Mg(HCO3)2 Fe(OH)2 +2CO2+MgSO4
4. 4Fe(OH) 2 +2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3
iv) Filtration: It is the process of removing colloidal matter & most
of the bacterias, micro-organism, etc. by passing water through
a bed of fine sand and other proper sized granular
materials.The common materials used for the filtering medium
are quartz sand (grain size 0.5-1.0 mm) , crushed anthracite
(0.8-1.5 mm) & porous clay (0.8-1.5 mm) .A sand filter consists
of a thick top layer of fine sand placed over coarse sand layer &
gravels. It is provided with an inlet for water & an under drain
channel at the bottom for exit of filtered water. Sedimented
water entering the sand filter is uniformly distributed over the
entire fine sand bed. During filtration , the sand pores get
clogged , due tor etention of impurities in the pores. About 2-3
cm of the top fine sand layer is scrapped off & replaced with
clean sand & the filter is put back into use again.
Slow sand filtration: Water for domestic use may
be filtered through large area
of finely graded sand beds at a slow rate about 2
gal/sq. ft./hr.
Rapid gravity filtration: Rapid gravity filters are
capable of producing potable
waters at flow rates as high as 100 gal/sq. ft./hr.
Rapid pressure filtration: Filtration rates are of the
order of 80 to > 200 gal/sq.
ft./hr.
Sand filter
B. Removal of micro-organism (Sterilisation of
water): Clarification of water by sedime-ntation ,
coagulation & filtration removes suspended solids
& also reduces the number of bacteria in the
water. Total elimination of bacteria can be
achieved only by sterilisation. Chlorine is the
most common sterilisation agent in water
treatment. Chlorine may be added in the form of
bleaching powder, or directly as a gas or in the
form of concentrated solution in water. The
following methods are employed for sterilisation
of water:
( i) By boiling: By boiling water for 10-15 min, all
the disease producing bacteria are killed and
water becomes safe for use.
(ii) By adding bleaching powder:
CaOCl2 +H2O  Ca(OH) 2 + Cl2
Cl2+H2O  HOCl + HCl
Hypochlorous acid
Germs + HOCl Germs are killed
(iii) By chlorination :
Cl2+H2O  HOCl + HCl
Hypochlorous acid
Germs + HOCl Germs are killed
(iv) By using chloramine(ClNH2) :
Cl2 + NH3 HCl + ClNH2
ClNH2 +H2O  HOCl + NH3
(v) Disinfection by ozone:
3 O2  2O3
O3  O2 +[O] Nascent oxygen
 Disposal (slud-
ge,dirty water)

Disinfe-
ction

Raw
water pumps Potable
water

Screens Coagula- Filtra- Pump

tion Sedime- tion
ntation

Clarification

Purification of water for domestic use

DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER
Pressure membrane processes: The three allied
pressure membrane processes generally
distinguished are:
(a) Microfiltration (MF), it retains larger particles than UF
& operates at lesser pressure about 10 psig.
(b) Ultrafiltration (UF), which can remove particles
ranging in size from 0.001 to 10 µm .It is normally
operated in the pressure range of 15 psig.
(c) Nanofiltration (NF), which can remove particles of the
size range of about 0.001 µm .It is normally operated in
the pressure range of 75 to 250 psig.
(d) REVERSE OSMOSIS: Which can remove particles
in the size range of 0.0001 to 0.001 µm It operates in
the pressure range of 200 to 1200 psig. In reverse
osmosis methods, pure solvent
(water) is separated from its contaminates
rather than removing contaminants from the
water. Pressure is applied to the sea-water
/impure water to force its pure water out
through the semi-permeable membrane,
leaving behind the dissolved solids.
The membrane consists of very thin films
of cellulose acetate, polymethacrylate &
polyamide polymers.
 Schematics of a reverse
osmosis system (desalination)
1: Sea water inflow,
2: Fresh water flow (40%),
3: Concentrate flow (60%),
4: Sea water flow (60%),
5: Concentrate (drain),
A: High pressure pump flow
(40%),
B: Circulation pump,
C: Osmosis unit with
membrane,
D: Pressure exchanger