•UNIT-4 GAS WELDING

Welding
• Welding which is the process of joining two metallic
components for the desired purpose,

• can be defined as the process of joining two similar or

dissimilar metallic components with the application
of heat, with or without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler metal.
• Heat may be obtained by chemical reaction, electric
arc, electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and
light energy.
• If no filler metal is used during welding then it is
termed as ‘Autogenous Welding Process'.
 Applications
• General Applications:
• Welding is vastly being used for construction of transport tankers for
transporting oil, water, milk and fabrication of welded tubes and pipes,
chains, LPG cylinders and other items. Steel furniture, gates, doors and
door frames, body and other parts of white goods items such as
refrigerators, washing machines, microwave ovens and many other items of
general applications are fabricated by welding.
• Pressure Vessels:
• One of the first major uses of welding was in the fabrication of pressure
vessels. Welding made considerable increases in the operating temperatures
and pressures possible as compared to riveted pressure vessels.
• Bridges:
• Early use of welding in bridge construction took place in Australia. This
was due to problems in transporting complete riveted spans or heavy
riveting machines necessary for fabrication on site to remote areas. The
first all welded bridge was erected in UK in 1934. Since then all welded
bridges are erected very commonly and successfully.
 Applications
• Railways:
• Railways use welding extensively for fabrication of coaches
and wagons, wheel tyres laying of new railway tracks by
mobile flash butt welding machines and repair of
cracked/damaged tracks by thermit welding.
• Automobiles:
• Production of automobile components like chassis, body and
its structure, fuel tanks and joining of door hinges require
welding.
• Electrical Industry:
• Starting from generation to distribution and utilization of
electrical energy, welding plays important role. Components of
both hydro and steam power generation system, such as
penstocks, water control gates, condensers, electrical
transmission towers and distribution system equipment are
fabricated by welding. Turbine blades and cooling fins are also
joined by welding.
 Applications
• Ship Building :
• Ships were produced earlier by riveting. Over ten million rivets
were used in Queen Mary' ship which required skills and massive
organization for riveting but welding would have allowed the
semiskilled/ unskilled labor and the principle of pre-fabrication.
Welding found its place in ship building around 1920 and presently
all welded ships are widely used. Similarly submarines are also
produced by welding.
• Building Structures:
• Arc welding is used for construction of steel building leading to
considerable savings in steel and money. In addition to building,
huge structures such as steel towers etc also require welding for
fabrication.
• Aircraft and Spacecraft:
• Similar to ships, aircrafts were produced by riveting in early days
but with the introduction of jet engines welding is widely used for
aircraft structure and for joining of skin sheet to body.
• Space vehicles which have to encounter frictional heat as well as
low temperatures require outer skin and other parts of special
 Applications
• Micro-Joining:
• It employs the processes such as micro-plasma,
ultrasonic, laser and electron beam welding, for
joining of thin wire to wire, foil to foil and foil to
wire, such as producing junctions of thermocouples,
strain gauges to wire leads etc.

Apart from above applications welding is also used for

joining of pipes, during laying of crude oil and gas
pipelines, construction of tankers for their storage and
transportation. Offshore structures, dockyards,
loading and unloading cranes are also produced by
welding.
 Classification of Welding Processes

Welding processes can be classified based on

following criteria;
• Welding with or without filler material.
• Source of energy of welding.
• Arc and Non-arc welding.
• Fusion and Pressure welding.
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

The oxyacetylene welding process

uses a combination of oxygen and
acetylene gas to provide a high
temperature flame.
 Oxyfuel Gas Welding

• Fusion Welding process that uses fuel gas (acetylene, hydrogen, propane, or
butane) combined with oxygen to produce flame
• This flame heat melts the metals at the joint
• Acetylene fuel is used in gas welding process – Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Primary combustion process

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat

• This reaction dissociates into carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

Secondary combustion process

2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

• OAW is a manual process in which the

welder must personally control the the torch
movement and filler rod application
• The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers
to all the equipment needed to weld.
• Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas
at extremely high pressure.
 Flame Settings
• There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene
flames, usually termed:
– Neutral
– Carburizing (or “excess acetylene”)
– Oxidizing (or “excess oxygen” )
• The type of flame produced depends upon the
ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture
which leaves the torch tip.
 Flame definition
• The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to
acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-
to-one. It’s termed ”neutral” because it will usually have no
chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the
weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of
the weld metal.
• The excess acetylene flame as its name implies, is created when
the proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than that
required to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will cause
an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
• The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which
contains more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will
oxidize or ”burn” some of the metal being welded.
 Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Fig : Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and
cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or
reducing flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and
Neutral and Oxidizing Flame
Profiles
Pure Acetylene and Carburizing
Flame profiles
 Neutral flame
• Equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene
• Temperature 3260°C
• Nicely defined inner cone (light blue in colour)
• Outer flame envelope (much darker blue)
• No chemical change in the molten metal
• For welding of
Mild steel, stainless steel, cast iron,
copper, Aluminium
 Oxidising flame
• Small white cone(shorter, much bluer, more pointed than
that of neutral flame)
• Outer flame envelope (much shorter and tends to fan out
at the end)
• Burns with a loud roar
• Hotter than the neutral flame (excess oxygen)
• 1.5:1(oxygen:acetylene)
• Limited use
• For welding
copper base metals and Zinc base metals
ferrous metals such as manganese steel and CI
(in these cases, creates a base metal oxide that protects
the base metal)
 Reducing flame
• Can be recognized by acetylene feather
• Outer envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame
• Burning temp. is lower(does not consume carbon)
• Metals that that tend to absorb C should not be welded
with reducing flame
• 3038°C temp.
• Carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a
reducing flame
• Carburizing flame – welding of lead and surface
hardening
• Reducing flame – alloy steel rods, high carbon steel,
metals that do not tend to absorb carbon

• For most welding operations the neutral flame is used

 Welding practice & equipment
STEPS :

• Prepare the edges to be joined and maintain the proper

position

• Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at tip of the
torch

• Hold the torch at about 45deg to the work piece plane

• Inner flame near the work piece and filler rod at about 30 –
40 deg

• Touch filler rod at the joint and control the movement

according to the flow of the material
 Gas
welding
Equipment
Typical Oxyacetylene Welding
(OAW) Station
Torch used in Oxyacetylene Welding

Fig : (a) General view of and

(b) cross-section of a torch
used in oxyacetylene
welding. The acetylene
valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a park lighter
or a pilot light; then the
oxygen valve is opened
and the flame adjusted. (c)
Basic equipment used in
oxyfuel-gas welding. To
ensure correct connections,
all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed,
whereas those for oxygen
are right-handed. Oxygen
regulators are usually
painted green, acetylene
regulators red.
 Oxygen Cylinders
• Oxygen is stored within cylinders of various
sizes and pressures ranging from 2000-
2640 PSI. (Pounds Per square inch)
• Oxygen cylinders are forged from solid
armor plate steel. No part of the cylinder
may be less than 1/4” thick.
• Cylinders are then tested to over 3,300 PSI
using a (NDE) hydrostatic pressure test.
Oxygen Cylinders

• Cylinders are regularly

re-tested using
hydrostatic (NDE)
while in service
• Cylinders are regularly
chemically cleaned
and annealed to relieve
“jobsite” stresses
created by handling .
 Cylinder Transportation

• Never transport cylinders without the safety

caps in place
• Never transport with the regulators in place
• Never allow bottles to stand freely. Always
chain them to a secure cart or some other
object that cannot be toppled easily.
 Oxygen gas cylinder

• Solid drawn out of mild steel or alloy steel

• Oxygen volume in cylinder is directly
proportional to its pressure
• Equipped with safety nut
Oxygen Cylinders
• Oxygen cylinders
incorporate a thin metal
“pressure safety disk”
made from stainless steel
and are designed to
rupture prior to the
cylinder becoming
damaged by pressure.
• The cylinder valve should
always be handled
carefully
Pressure Regulators for
Cylinders
• Reduce high storage
cylinder pressure to
lower working
pressure.
• Most regulators have a
gauge for cylinder
pressure and working
pressure.
Pressure Regulators for
Cylinders

• Regulators are shut off

when the adjusting screw
is turn out completely.
• Regulators maintain a
constant torch pressure
although cylinder pressure
may vary
• Regulator diaphragms are
made of stainless steel
 Pressure Regulators Gauges
Using a “Bourdon” movement

• Gas entering the gauge fills a

Bourdon tube
• As pressure in the semicircular
end increases it causes the free
end of the tube to move
outward.
• This movement is transmitted
through to a curved rack which
engages a pinion gear on the
pointer shaft ultimately
showing pressure.
Regulator Hoses
• Hoses are are fabricated from
rubber
• Oxygen hoses are green in
color and have right hand
thread.
• Acetylene hoses are red in
color with left hand thread.
• Left hand threads can be
identified by a grove in the
body of the nut and it may
have “ACET” stamped on it
 Check Valves &
Flashback Arrestors

• Check valves allow gas

flow in one direction only
• Flashback arrestors are
designed to eliminate the
possibility of an explosion
at the cylinder.
• Combination Check/
Flashback Valves can be
placed at the torch or
regulator.
 Acetylene Gas
• Virtually all the acetylene distributed for welding and cutting
use is created by allowing calcium carbide (a man made product)
to react with water.
• The nice thing about the calcium carbide method of producing
acetylene is that it can be done on almost any scale desired.
Placed in tightly-sealed cans, calcium carbide keeps indefinitely.
For years, miners’ lamps produced acetylene by adding water, a
drop at a time, to lumps of carbide.

• Before acetylene in cylinders became available in almost every

community of appreciable size produced their own gas from
calcium carbide.
 Acetylene Cylinders
• Acetylene is stored in cylinders specially designed
for this purpose only.
• Acetylene is extremely unstable in its pure form at
pressure above 15 PSI (Pounds per Square Inch)
• Acetone is also present within the cylinder to
stabilize the acetylene.
• Acetylene cylinders should always be stored in the
upright position to prevent the acetone form
escaping thus causing the acetylene to become
unstable.
Acetylene Cylinders
• Cylinders are filled with a
very porous substance
“monolithic filler” to help
prevent large pockets of
pure acetylene form
forming
• Cylinders have safety
(Fuse) plugs in the top and
bottom designed to melt at
212° F (100 °C)
 Acetylene gas cylinder

• Solid drawn steel cylinder

• Filled with a spongy material like balsa wood,
which is saturated with chemical solvent called
acetone (high pressure acetylene is not stable)
• Always kept upright
• Equipped with a number of fusible plugs at its
bottom
Acetylene Valves
• Acetylene cylinder shut
off valves should only be
opened 1/4 to 1/2 turn
• This will allow the
cylinder to be closed
quickly in case of fire.
• Cylinder valve wrenches
should be left in place on
cylinders that do not
have a hand wheel.
 Oxygen and Acetylene Regulator
Pressure Settings
• Regulator pressure may vary with different
torch styles and tip sizes.
• PSI (pounds per square inch) is sometimes shown as
PSIG (pounds per square inch -gauge)
• Common gauge settings for cutting
– 1/4” material Oxy 30-35psi Acet 3-9 psi
– 1/2” material Oxy 55-85psi Acet 6-12 psi
– 1” material Oxy 110-160psi Acet 7-15 psi
• Check the torch manufactures data for
optimum pressure settings
 Disadvantages
• Heavy sections can not be joined economically
• Flame temp. is less than the arc temp.
• Fluxes used produce fumes
• Refractory material (w, Mo) and reactive metals can
not be gas welded
• Flame takes long time to heat up
• Prolonged heating of joints result in larger heat affected
area – increased grain growth and more distortion
• Safety problem with handling and storing of gases
• Gases are rather expensive
• Flux shielding is not so effective
Leftward technique
Flame is directed away from finished
weld an directed towards unwelded part
of joint
Sideway movement of torch and
backward and forward movement of
filler rod allowing melting of bottom
edge of joint
Difficult to obtain deep penetration,
recommended for welding up to 3 mm
thick
View of joint is interrupted
Rightward technique
Flame is directed towards completed
weld. filler rod remains between flame
and completed section of weld
As flame is constantly directed on edge
hence no sideway movement of torch.
Filler rod is moved in circle
Deep penetration is possible
,recommended for over 3 mm thick
material
Joint view is clear
 Regulator Pressure Settings

• The maximum safe working pressure for

acetylene is 15 PSI !
Typical torch styles
• A small welding torch, with throttle valves
located at the front end of the handle. Ideally
suited to sheet metal welding. Can be fitted
with cutting

• attachment in place of the welding head

shown. Welding torches of this general design
are by far the most widely used. They will
handle any oxyacetylene welding job, can be
fitted with multiflame (Rosebud) heads for
heating applications, and accommodate
cutting attachments that will cut steel 6 in.
thick.

• A full-size oxygen cutting torch which has all

valves located in its rear body. Another style
of cutting torch, with oxygen valves located at
the front end of its handle.
 Typical startup procedures
• Verify that equipment visually appears safe IE: Hose
condition, visibility of gauges
• Clean torch orifices with a “tip cleaners” (a small wire
gauge file set used to clean slag and dirt form the torch
tip)
• Crack (or open) cylinder valves slightly allowing
pressure to enter the regulators slowly
• Opening the cylinder valve quickly will “Slam” the
regulator and will cause failure.
 Typical startup procedures
• Never stand directly in the path of a regulator
when opening the cylinder
• Check for leaks using by listening for “Hissing” or
by using a soapy “Bubble” solution
• Adjust the regulators to the correct operating
pressure
• Slightly open and close the Oxygen and
Acetylene valves at the torch head to purge any
atmosphere from the system.
 Typical startup procedures
• Always use a flint and steel spark lighter to light the
oxygen acetylene flame.

• Never use a butane lighter to light the flame

 •Advantages of Gas welding

1. Temperature of flame can be easily controlled.

2. The amount of filler metal deposits can be controlled easily.

3. The flame can be used for welding and cutting.

4. All types of metal can be used .

5. Cost of equipment is less.

6. It can be used in the factory or in the field.

7. Maintenance cost of gas welding equipment is less

 •Limitations of Gas welding
1. It is not suitable for joining thick plates.

2. It is a slow process.

3. Strength of weld is not so good as arc welding.

4. Handling and Storing of gas cylinders need more

care.

5. Gas flame takes up a longer time to heat up the metal

than an electric arc.
 Quiz time

• The regulator diaphragm is often made from

_______?
A: reinforced rubber
B: malleable iron
C: tempered aluminum
D: stainless steel
 Quiz time

• The hose nuts for oxygen and acetylene

differ greatly, because the acetylene hose
nut has.
A: a left hand thread.
B: has a grove cut around it.
C: may have ACET stamped on it.
D: All of the above.
 Quiz time

• An oxygen cylinder must be able to

withstand a ________ pressure of 3300 psi
(22753 kPa) to be qualified for service.
A: atmospheric
B: hydrostatic
C: hydroscopic
D: vapor
 Quiz time

• Why is the area above 15 psig often marked

with a red band on a acetylene low pressure
regulator ?
• Answer
– Acetylene pressure above 15 psig is unstable
and should not be used
 Quiz time

• True or False ?
– A flint and steel spark lighter is the generally
used to light the oxyacetylene flame.

• Answer: True
 Quiz time

• Acetylene cylinder fuse plugs melt at a

temperature of ________° F or 100°C

• Answer
– 212°F
 Quiz time

• What is the maximum safe working gauge

pressure for acetylene gas?
A: 8 psig (55 kPa)
B: 15 psig (103 kPa)
C: 22 psig (152 kPa)
D: 30 psig (207 kPa)
 Quiz time

• The color of and oxygen hose on a

oxyacetylene welding outfit is ______?

• Answer
– Green
 Quiz time

• The type of safety device is used on a

oxygen cylinder.
A: A fusible plug
B: A check valve
C: A pressure safety disk
D: A spring loaded plug
 Quiz time

• True or False ?
– The regulator is closed when the adjusting
screw is turned out.
• Answer: True
 Quiz time

• The color of and acetylene oxygen hose on

a oxyacetylene welding outfit is ______?

• Answer
– Red
 Quiz time

• No part of an oxygen cylinder walls may be

thinner than _______?
A: 1/4”in (6.4 mm)
B: 3/8”in (9.5 mm)
C: 3/16”in (4.8 mm)
D: 7/32”in (5.6 mm)
 Quiz time

• To prevent the occurrence of flashbacks, a

________ should be installed between
either the torch and hoses or regulators and
hoses.
A: a two way check valve.
B: flame screen.
C: flashback arrestor.
D: three way check valve.
 Quiz time

• What type of safety device is used on a

acetylene cylinder.
A: A spring loaded plug
B: A pressure safety disk
C: A fusible plug
D: A check valve
 Quiz time

• Mixing _______ and water will produce

acetylene gas.
A: calcium carbide
B: potassium carbonate
C: carbon dioxide
D: acetylene carbide
 GAS CUTTING

• Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure

oxygen is projected onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes
• Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are
blown away by the force of the jet, to make a cut
• Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of
accuracy
• Torch is different from welding
• Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for
oxygen jet
• PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations
• Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away
from the edge of the plate
• Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface
 GAS CUTTING

Automatic Gas Cutting Manual Gas Cutting

•Soldering
 •What is soldering?

•Soldering is a method of applying an alloy, of lower

melting point, to join metal parts together.

•Soldering can be performed in a number of ways,

•Using: Electric soldering iron or brazing torch.

• Soldering wire is an alloy of Tin and Lead (60% 40%).

•

•A Flux is usually used to assist in the joining process.

•The purpose of the flux is to clean the surface.
 •Soldering Iron

Mains powered soldering irons.

These consist of a handle on to which is mounted the heating element. On the end of
the heating element is what is known as the "bit", so called because it is the bit that
heats the joint up. Solder melts at around 190 degrees Centigrade, and the bit reaches
a temperature of over 250 degrees Centigrade. This temperature is plenty hot enough
to inflict a nasty burn.
•Clean
•Firstly, all parts - including the iron tip itself - must be clean and
free from contamination.
•Solder just will not take to dirty parts.

•Temperature
•The next step to successful soldering is to ensure that the
temperature of all the parts is roughly the same level before
applying solder.
•The melting point of most solder is in the region of 188°C
(370°F) and the iron tip temperature is typically 330-350°C
(626°-662°F).
•Time
•The joint should be heated with the bit for just the right amount of
time
•The heating period depends on the temperature of your iron and
size of the joint - and larger parts need more heat than smaller ones -
but some parts (semiconductor diodes, transistors and i.c.s), are
sensitive to heat and should not be heated for more than a few
seconds.

•Solder Coverage
•The final key to a successful solder joint is to apply an appropriate
amount of solder. Too much solder is an unnecessary waste and may
cause short circuits with adjacent joints. Too little and it may not
support the component properly, or may not fully form a working
joint.
•
•Common Solder Alloys
•Joints in Soldering
 Brazing and Soldering
• Both brazing and soldering are the metal joining
processes in which parent metal does not melt but
only filler metal melts filling the joint with
capillary action
• If the filler metal is having melting temperature
more than 450°C but lower than the melting
temperature of components then it is termed as
process of brazing or hard soldering.
• However, if the melting temperature of filler
metal is lower than 450°C and also lower than the
melting point of the material of components then
it is know as soldering or soft soldering.
 Brazing and Soldering
During brazing or soldering flux is also used
which performs the following functions:
• Dissolve oxides from the surfaces to be joined.
• Reduce surface tension of molten filler metal i.e.
increasing its wetting action or spreadability.
• Protect the surface from oxidation during joining
operation.
The strength of brazed joint is higher than
soldered joint but lower than welded joint.
However, in between welding and brazing there is
another process termed as braze welding'.
 Brazing and Soldering
Brazing can be classified as
• Torch brazing
• Dip brazing
• Furnace brazing
• Induction brazing
Brazing - Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages

• Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by

brazing
• Very thin metals can be joined
• Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
• In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece.
Hence there is no distortion
• Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool
holders

Disadvantages

• Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding

• Joint preparation cost is more
• Can be used for thin sheet metal sections
 Brazing - Applications
• Where special metallurgical characteristics of
metals have to be preserved after joining
• Applicable to cast and wrought iron, steels,
Cu, Al, Mg and their alloys
• Can join
cast metals to wrought metals
Non-metals to metals
Dissimilar metals
Porous metal components
Brazing and Soldering

•Advantages •Limitations
 Braze Welding

• Unlike brazing, in braze welding capillary action plays no

role but the filler metal which has liquidus above 450 ° C
but below the melting point of parent metal, fills the joint
like welding without the melting of edges of parent metal
• During the operation, the edges of the parent metal are
heated by oxy-acetylene flame or some other suitable heat
source to that temperature so that parent metal may not melt
but melting temperature of filler metal is reached.
• When filler rod is brought in contact with heated edges of
parent metal, the filler rod starts melting, filling the joint.
• If edges temperature falls down then again heat source is
brought for melting filler rod.
• The molten filler metal and parent metal edges produce
adhesion on cooling resulting into strong braze weld.
 •Metals Braze welded
•Steel, Cast Iron, Copper and Nickel and nickel alloys
•Braze welding filler metal composition
Sr. % Composition Liquidus
no.
1 Cu Zn Sn Fe Ni Temperature
2 60 39 1 900
3 60 38 1 1 890
4 60 37.5 1 1 0.5 890
5 50 40 10 935

1 % Sn improves strength
Ni improves weld metal strength.
Small amount of Fe, Sn, Mn and Si-improves flow
characteristics, strength and reduce volatilization of Zinc
 •Braze Welding Procedure
• A)Joint preparation:
1) square grove for less than 2mm thick sheet.
2) Over 2mm single V or double V grooves are prepared.
3) Joints prepared by grinding or machining.

• B)Cleaning of surfaces
 Mechanical and chemical cleaning :
 steel wool, emery paper, grinding, HCl acid or salt bath
cleaning

• C)Aligning and Clamping

D)Preheating of parts-
• 425-480 ◦C-size of part, reduce thermal stresses.
• E)Flame adjustment
• Oxidizing flame for C.I.
• Neutral flame for Steel
• Small angle of torch with W.P. to reduce over heating

• F)Application of filler rod and flux:

 Heat filler rod and dip into flux and apply to surface.
 Sprinkle flux on thick joint.
 Do not focus inner cone of flame on filler rod directly.
 Red hot base metal and melt little filler metal and spread
it on joint (called as tinning)
 Start depositing layers of filler with circular motion of
torch.
•Metallurgy of Braze welding

1) Atomic forces :Atomic diffusion takes place between filler

metal and base metal.
• 2) Alloying due to diffusion(Cu, Zn,Sn) diffuse into base metal
and base metal constituents in to filler metal.
•3)Intergranular penetration: Penetration of brazing filler metal in
grain boundaries of base metal.
•Advantages
1) Less heat requirement compared with conventional welding.
2) Lower fuel consumption and higher welding speed
3) Dissimilar metals can be joined (Cu to steel).
4) Joint deposits are ductile and soft.
5) Brittle metals can be joined without much preheat. (C.I.)
• Limitations

1) Service restrictions above 260 ◦C and dynamic loads

above 1000Kg/sq cm.
2) Subjected to galvanic corrosion.
3) Braze filler metal colour may not match with base
metal.
• Applications :

• 1)Repairing of ferrous casting and machine parts.

• 2)Furniture ,bicycles, refrigerators, automobiles and
household applications
 •Braze
Material welding
Filler metal Preheating
temperature
Cast Iron Manganese bronze 450-500◦C
Malleable Iron Ni bronze/Mn Bronze 450-500◦C
Steel Ni Bronze 500-600◦C
Copper Si Bronze

•Welded and braze welded joint

Brazing
Used for closely fitted
surfaces
Filler metal is distributed by Filler metal is puddled into
capillary action
Profile of brazed joint is
smooth
No fusion of base metal
Strength is less due to very
thin film of filler metal at
joint.
Braze Welding
Used for welding of groove,
fillet and slots
gap
Braze welded joint show
ripples
Limited fusion of base metal
Strength is more due to thick
deposit of filler metal
Unit 4
Arc Welding
 •Electric arc welding
A group of fusion welding processes that use an electric
arc to produce the heat required for
melting the metal and filler material.
•Arc welding is
a welding process, in
which heat is generated by
an electric arc struck
between an electrode and
the work piece.
•Electric arc is luminous
electrical discharge
between two electrodes
through ionized gas.
 •Power supply (AC or DC);
•Welding electrode;
Electric
•Work piece;
Circuit:-
•Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the
electrode and work piece to the power supply.
• An electrical circuit is a complete path for electricity.
• Establishing an arc completes an electric circuit .
 •Electric arc welding
•Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes
the electric circuit.
• The arc temperature may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which
is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining
them.
•A filler metal is required for better bonding.
•Filling rod (wire) is used either as outside material fed
to the arc region or as consumable welding electrode.
•Chemical compositions of filler metal is similar to that
of work piece.
 •Electric arc welding-Shielding of weld

•Molten metal in the weld pool is chemically active and

it reacts with the surrounding atmosphere.
•Weld may be contaminated by oxide and nitride
inclusions deteriorating its mechanical properties.

•Neutral shielding gases (argon, helium) and/or shielding

fluxes are used for protection of the weld pool

•Shields are supplied to the weld zone in form of a flux

coating of the electrode or in other forms.
• Direct current: A type of current where the flow of electrons
is in one direction.
• In arc welding the direction of flow is called the polarity.
•Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
an carbon electrode and the work piece. The arc heats and
melts the work pieces edges, forming a joint.
•If required, filler rod may be
used in Carbon Arc Welding.

•End of the rod is held in the

arc zone
•The molten rod material is
supplied to the weld pool.
•Shields (neutral gas, flux) may
be used for weld pool protection
depending on type of welded
metal.
•Modification of Carbone Arc Welding is Twin Carbon
Electrode Arc Welding,
•Utilizing arc struck between two carbon electrodes.
•Work piece is not a part of welding electric circuit
•In Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding, therefore the
welding torch may be moved from one work piece to other
without extinguishing the arc.
•In case a DC supply is used, the positive electrode will
disintegrate and consume at a much faster rate as compared
to negative electrode

•Because two-thirds of the total heat is generated at the

positive pole
•This will produce an unstable arc and require frequent
adjustment of the electrodes
•In AC welding, because of alternate reversals of polarity,
both the electrodes will be affected equally and present no
problem.

•The electrodes employed for twin-carbon arc welding are

approximately of the same diameter as the workpiece
thickness.
•Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

•Low cost of equipment and welding operation;

•High level of operator skill is not required;
•The process is easily automated;
•Low distortion of work piece.

•Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

•Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);

•Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with
carbides.
•Shielded metal arc welding

•uses a metallic consumable

electrode of a proper
composition for
generating arc between itself
and the parent work piece.
•The molten electrode metal
fills the weld gap and joins the
work pieces.
•The electrodes are coated
with a shielding flux of a
suitable composition.
 •Shielded metal arc welding

•The flux melts together with the

electrode metallic core, forming a
gas and a slag, shielding the arc
and the weld pool.
•The flux cleans the metal surface,
supplies some alloying elements to
the weld, protects the molten metal
from oxidation and stabilizes the
arc.
•The slag is removed after Solidification.
•Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
•Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
•Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes
are applicable;
•Suitable for outdoor applications.

•Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

•The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the
electrodes;
•Weld may contain slag inclusions;
•Fumes make difficult the process control.
•Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

•It is a arc welding

process, in which the weld
is shielded by an external
gas (Argon, helium, CO2,
argon + Oxygen or other
gas mixtures).
•Consumable electrode wire,
having chemical composition
similar to that of the parent
material, is continuously fed
from a spool to the arc zone.
• GMAW is a metal inert gas welding (MIG)
• Weld area shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of
argon,helium,carbon dioxide, various other gas mixtures.
• No flux used.
• Arc Length 1.5 to 4 mm.
Welding Equipment:
 Power Source : DC power, 400 Amps.
Welding torch :Energises electrode , feeds electrode and shielding
gas., water or air cooled.
Wire feed mechanism :Constant or variable speed, wire spool,
Process capabilities
• GMAV process is suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals
• Process is versatile ,rapid,economical,welding productivity is
double that of SMAW
•Equipment used in Metal-Arc Welding Operations
 •Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

•The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and
the electrode wire.
•The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces
of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint.
•Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode)
the process is referred to as a semi-automatic.
•The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.
 •Welding gun and wire feed unit
•The typical GMAW welding gun has a number of key
parts—a control switch, a contact tip, a power cable, a gas
nozzle, an electrode conduit and liner, and a gas hose.
•The control switch, or trigger, when
pressed by the operator, initiates the
wire feed, electric power, and the
shielding gas flow, causing an electric
arc to be struck.
•wire feeders can reach feed rates as
high as 30.5 m/min
•GMAW torch nozzle cutaway image. (1) Torch handle, (2) Molded phenolic
dielectric (shown in white) and threaded metal nut insert (yellow), (3)Shielding
gas diffuser, (4) Contact tip, (5) Nozzle output face
 •Power supply
•Use a constant voltage power supply
•As a result, any change in arc length (which is directly related
to voltage) results in a large change in heat input and current
•A shorter arc length causes a much greater heat input, which
makes the wire electrode melt more quickly and thereby
restore the original arc length.
•This helps operators keep the arc length consistent even
when manually welding with hand-held welding guns
•Direct current is employed and the electrode is generally
positively charged. Since the anode tends to have a greater heat
concentration, this results in faster melting of the feed wire,
which increases weld penetration and welding speed.
•Metals Welded : C steel, low alloy steel, SS,Al and Al alloys, Cu
and Cu alloys.
•Shielding gases
•Ar : Al Mg,Cu,Ni and Ti
•He : Al ,Mg, Cu
•CO2:M.S.
•Ar :reduces spatter, CO2 ,He : deep penetration
•Advantages :
•Faster process, deep penetration hick and thin welds, mechanised,no
flux , no distortion.
•Limitations :
•Weld equipment complex ,costly and less portable.
•Restriction for Out door applications.
 •Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)
•Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

•Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions);

•High level of operators skill is not required;
•Slag removal is not required (no slag);

•Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

•Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;

•Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind,
dispersing the shielding gas.
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Uses a non consumable tungsten electrode and an
inert gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
– In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
– When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool from separate
rod or wire
• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly
 TIG Welding Introduction

• What is TIG?
– Tungsten Inert Gas
• Also referred to as GTAW
– Gas Shielded Tungsten Welding
• In TIG welding, a tungsten electrode
heats the metal you are welding and gas
(most typically Argon) protects the weld
from airborne contaminants
• TIG welding uses a non-consumable tungsten
• Filler metal, when required, is added by hand
• Shielding gas protects the weld and tungsten
 •Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

•The diameter of the electrode can vary between 0.5 and 6.4
millimetres (0.02 and 0.25 in), and their length can range from
75 to 610 millimetres
•Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Advantages

• Welds more metals and

metal alloys than any other
process
• High quality and precision
• Pin point control
• Aesthetic weld beads
• No sparks or spatter
• No flux or slag
• No smoke or fumes
Advantages and Disadvantages of GTAW

Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
 Disadvantages:

• Generally slower and more costly

than consumable electrode AW
processes
• Lower filler metal deposition rates
• Good hand-eye coordination a
required skill
• Brighter UV rays than other
processes
• Slower travel speeds than other
processes
• Equipment costs tend to be higher
than other processes
 •Preparation of TIG welding
Cleaning

• Oil, grease, shop dirt, paint, marking crayon, and rust or

corrosion deposits must be removed from the joint and metal
surfaces to a distance beyond the heat affected zone
• Their presence may lead to arc instability and contaminated
welds.
Preparing Aluminum for Welding
• Very susceptible to contaminants
• Surface oxide must be removed
• Special abrasive wheels are available for aluminum
• Stainless steel wire brushes recommended
• Both sides of the joint should be cleaned if it contains foreign
material
Preparing Stainless Steel for Welding
• Should be thoroughly cleaned
• Foreign material may cause porosity in welds and carburetion
of the surface which decreases the corrosion resistance
• Stainless steel wire brushes recommended

Preparing Titanium for Welding

• Essential that weld area and filler metal be cleaned
• Mill scale, oil, grease, dirt, grinding dust, and any other
contamination must be removed
• If titanium is scale free, only degreasing required
• Joint should be brushed with stainless steel wire brush and
degreased with acetone
• Be cautious of fine titanium dust particles as they are
flammable
Arc Length
• Arc length normally one electrode
diameter, when AC welding with a
balled end electrode
• When DC welding with a pointed
electrode, arc length may be much
less than electrode diameter

Gas Cup Size

• Inside diameter of gas cup should be
at least three times the tungsten
diameter to provide adequate shielding
gas coverage
• Picture on right shows example of gas
cup size and torch position
 •Shielding Gases
• Argon, Helium and Argon/Helium Mixtures

Argon Helium
 Good arc starting • Faster travel speeds
 Good cleaning action • Increased penetration
 Good arc stability • Difficult arc starting
 Focused arc cone • Less cleaning action
 Lower arc voltages • Less low amp stability
 10-30 CFH flow rates • Flared arc cone
• Higher arc voltages
• Higher flow rates (2x)
• Higher cost than argon
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
•Plasma according to natural science, is one of the four
fundamental states of matter .

•When air or gas is ionized, plasma forms with conductive

properties similar to those of metals.

•Heating a gas may ionize its molecules or atoms thus

turning it into a plasma, which contains charged particles:
positive ions and negative electrons or ions.
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that
focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely
hot plasma arc stream
• Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to constriction of arc, producing
a plasma jet of small diameter and very high
energy density
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted

plasma arc is directed at weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert
gas (argon) into arc region to form a high
velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
•Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
•Temperatures in PAW
reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to
constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet
of small diameter and
very high energy
density.
•Can weld Al 127 mm
thick and Stainless
steel upto 100 mm
thick
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Advantages and Disadvantages of PAW
Advantages:
• Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
• Better penetration control than other AW
processes
• High travel speeds
• Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Larger torch size than other AW processes
– Tends to restrict access in some joints
 •D.C. Power
DCSP (Straight Polarity) DCRP (Reverse Polarity)
• Work is negative (cathode)
• Work is positive (anode)
and Electrode is positive.
and Electrode is negative.
• Electron flow from • Electron flow from work
piece to electrode which
electrode to work piece.
tends to clean work piece.
• Work material is heated
• Electrode is heated much
much faster than electrode.
faster than work piece.
• This is useful for massive
• This is recommended for
thickness and deep
thin sections such as
penetration joints and
automobile bodies and non
narrowest HAZ.
ferrous metals.
• Fastest travel speed and less
• It is recommended for Al
electrode consumption.
,Mg, Cu and Be.
• Recommended for steel ,
• It has ability to scour the
nickel base alloys,
oxide film from surface.
 A.C. Power source
• In A.C. welding polarity is changing at W.P. and electrode
at every half cycle.
• Equal amount of heat is generated at electrode and W.P.
• Penetration and HAZ is midway between two types of
D.C.
• Little magnetic arc blow
• Equipment is less expensive and less energy consumption.
Limitations-1)Low power factor.
2)Unstable arc, it can be stabilised by raising voltage or
frequency.
3)Only coated electrodes to be used as coating contain
ionizing agents.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding by a cover of
granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a
coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead
of arc by gravity from a hopper
– Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 SAW Applications and Products

• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,

I-beams)
• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels (except hi C steel)
• Not good for nonferrous metals
Advantages:
Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
Weld spatters are eliminated.
100% deposition efficiency.
Disadvantages:
Can not be used for plates less than 5 mm.
It can not cut C.I. because of high heat input.
Slag to be removed continuously.
Applications:
For Joining of pressure vessels, railroad tank cars.
Welding of Low C steel,HSLA ,Cr steels, Cr-Ni steels
 •Electroslag welding (ESW)
It is a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thick (greater than 25 mm up to about 300 mm) materials in
a vertical or close to vertical position.
•An electric arc is initially
struck by wire that is fed into
the desired weld location and
then flux is added.
•Additional flux is added until
the molten slag, reaching the tip
of the electrode, extinguishes the
arc.
•The wire is then continually fed through a consumable guide
tube into the surfaces of the metal workpieces and the filler
metal are then melted using the electrical resistance of the
molten slag to cause coalescence
•The wire and tube then move up along the workpiece
while a copper retaining shoe that was put into place before
starting (can be water-cooled if desired) is used to keep the
weld between the plates that are being welded.
•Electroslag welding is used mainly to join low carbon
steel plates and/or sections that are very thick.
•This process uses a direct current (DC) voltage usually
ranging from about 600A and 40-50V, higher currents are
needed for thicker materials. Because the arc is extinguished,
this is not an arc process.
•Benefits of the process include its high metal deposition
rates—it can lay metal at a rate between 15 and 20 kg / hr per
electrode—and its ability to weld thick materials.
•The process is also very efficient, since joint preparation
and materials handling are minimized while filler metal
utilization is high
•The process is also safe and clean, with no arc flash and
low weld splatter or distortion. Electroslag welding easily
lends itself to mechanization, thus reducing the requirement
for skilled manual welders.
•The max. workpiece thickness 0.91 m that has been welded
was a piece that required the use of six electrodes.
•One electrode is commonly used to make welds on materials
with a thickness of 25 to 75 mm and thicker pieces generally
require more electrodes.