By

Muhammad Bilal Sethi

M.Phil
PhD Continued
Biological Bases of Behaviour.
Lecture 4: Hormones.
 Learning Outcomes.

• By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

• 1. Describe the different types of hormones and their key

actions.
• 2. Explain the neural control of hormone release.
Harmones

A regulatory substance produced in an

organism and transported in tissue fluids such
as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or
tissues into action.
Basic function of
Harmones
The main function of endocrine glands is to secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are
chemical substances that affect the activity of another part
of the body (target site). In essence, hormones serve as
messengers, controlling and coordinating activities
throughout the body
Malfunctions

Hyposecretion
hypersecretion
Mechanisam

lock and key model

 What Are Hormones?
• Hormones are chemicals secreted by endocrine glands
 How Do Hormones Work?
• Hormones travel through the blood and influence the
activity of other glands and organs.
• They produce short- and long-term changes in various cells
and organs by acting like neurotransmitters at
metabotropic receptors.
• A hormone can only influence cells that have specific target
receptors for that particular hormone.
 Types of Hormones.

• Endocrine glands produce 2 major classes of hormones

(and several other types as well):
• 1. Protein hormones: These comprise amino acids, those
that are only several amino acids in length are called
peptide hormones, whereas larger ones are called
polypeptide hormones. They include:

• Insulin: Made in the pancreas, it increases the entry of

glucose into the cells, and regulates fat storage.
• Glucagons: Made in the pancreas, are responsible for
increasing the conversion of stored fats to blood glucose.
• Leptin: Produced by the fat cells, it informs the brain how
much fat is contained in the body.
 Leptin in Action.

 When leptin levels are high

appetite is decreased.
 When leptin levels are low
appetite is increased and
bodily activity is reduced.
 Mice who inherit 2 copies of
the defective ob gene are
unable to produce leptin
and so overeat.
 Injections of leptin reduce
their food intake.
 2. Steroid Hormones.
• These are derived from cholesterol from the diet and exert
their effects in two ways:
• i) They bind directly to membrane receptors.
• ii) As they are fat soluble they pass through cell
membranes where they attach to receptors in the
cytoplasm. Here they determine gene expression.
• There are several types of steroid hormones:
• a) Corticoids.
• Glucocorticoids (principally cortisol) are released by the
adrenal glands in response to stress.
• They increase the breakdown of fats and proteins into
glucose to trigger escape or defense ("fight or flight").
• Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone) are also produced by
the adrenal glands and reduce salt secretion in the kidneys.
 b) Sex Steroids.
• These are released mainly by the ovaries and testes but
also by the adrenal glands. They comprise:
• Androgens: Testosterone is produced in large amounts in
males and has masculinising and defeminising effects;
maintaining male secondary sexual characteristics and
promoting courtship, aggressive and sexual behaviours.
• Estrogens: Estradiol is produced in large amounts in
females and has feminising effects, promoting female
secondary sexual characteristics, water retention, calcium
metabolism, sexual behaviour and maternal behaviours.
• Progesterone prepares the uterus for the implantation of a
fertilised ovum and regulates the stages of pregnancy.
 Misunderstandings.

• According to Nelson (2000), there are several

misunderstandings surrounding hormones:

• 1. Sex steroids are sex-specific: In fact both males and

females produce androgens and estrogens though their
relative concentrations differ.
• 2. Individual differences in behaviour and physiology
reflect differences in hormone concentration: While overall
concentration is indeed important, of equal importance is
the receptivity of the cells to the hormone.
• A high hormone concentration will have little effect if cells
lack receptivity, an excellent example of this is Androgen
Insensitivity Syndrome.
 Control of Hormone Release.

• Hormone release is controlled by two key structures in the

brain:
• 1. Hypothalamus: This is located at the base of the brain
and consists of several interconnected nuclei.
• The hypothalamic nuclei synthesise releasing hormones
that either stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones
from the pituitary gland.
• The hypothalamus also secretes oxytocin and vasopressin
which travel to the posterior pituitary gland. This then
releases them into the bloodstream in response to certain
neural signals.
 Negative Feedback in the
Hypothalamus.
• The hypothalamus maintains fairly constant levels of
hormones because it operates a negative feedback system.
E.g:
excitatory
Hypothalamus

inhibitory Thyroid Stimulating Hormone-

Releasing Hormone

Anterior pituitary

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Thyroid gland
Thyroid
hormones
 2. Pituitary Gland.
• This is called ‘the hypothalamus
master gland’ as it
produces at least 10
hormones which
influence the other
endocrine glands via
the hypothalamus.
Blood
• It consists of two supply
separate regions.
• The anterior pituitary Anterior
Posterior
pituitary
and the posterior pituitary
pituitary each share
distinct connections
Vasopressin
with the and oxytocin
hypothalamus. GH, ACTH,
TSH, FSH, LH
and prolactin
 Anterior Pituitary Gland.
• Hormones produced here are referred to as tropic as they
stimulate various processes:
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Increases production of
progesterone and stimulates ovulation in females. In males
it increases production of testosterone.
• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Increases production
of estrogen and maturation of the ovum (in females) and
sperm (in males).
• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Controls secretions of
the thyroid gland.
• Growth Hormone (GH): Increases body growth.
• Prolactin: Controls milk production in females.
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Controls secretions
of the adrenal gland.
 Posterior Pituitary Gland.

 This stores oxytocin which controls uterine contractions,

milk release, parental behaviours and orgasm.
 It also stores vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic
hormone) which constricts blood vessels, raises blood
pressure, and decreases urine volume.
 Hormones and Behaviour.
• Hormones do not cause a particular behaviour to change,
rather they change the likelihood that a particular
behaviour will occur in an appropriate environmental
context.
• Certain behaviours can also influence hormone levels, e.g.
testosterone levels can rise or fall depending upon whether
a contest has been won or lost.
• This is a ‘chicken and egg’ problem, i.e. do hormones
influence behaviour by directly affecting the brain, or does
behaving in a particular manner influence hormone
production?
• In order to decide we can use three techniques:
 Experiments to Test
Hormone/Behaviour Relationships.
• 1. If we remove the source of a particular hormone then a
behaviour that is assumed to depend upon that hormone
should disappear. E.g removal of testosterone by castration
dramatically reduces sexual desire and aggression in many
male animals.
• 2. Once a behaviour has ceased following hormone
removal, we can restore hormone function and see if the
behaviour returns. E.g administration of testosterone to
castrated adult males restores aggressive behaviours and
the mating urge.
• 3. If hormones and certain behaviours are related, then we
should expect that alterations in the relative concentration
of a hormone should produce related alterations in a
behaviour. E.g aggression should be higher when
circulating levels of testosterone are higher.