Computer Information System

Computer Concepts, Hardware,

Software, File Management, Types,
Applications and Operating Systems

Mahabala Shetty M
 Technological Changes

• Changes in the last 25 years

• Transportation, Communication, Internet, …
• Technological changes have their effect on
Product & Quality
• Company’s have to adopt computers
 History of Computers
• Computing – Sheppard using pebbles
• Led to symbols -> Manuscripts -> Prints ->
typewriter -> …
• ABACUS – Beads are strung on wires for
counting
• First computer device -> French Man (Blaise
Pascal ) in 1640 - > called Machine
Arithmetique
 … History of Computers
• 1800 – Charles Babbage -> Mechanical
Calculator -> Difference Engine -> Analytical
Engine by ADA Lovelac
• 1880 – Herman Hollerith ->punched cards like
• 1946 – ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
& Calculator) – by Eckert & Mauchly
 Computer Generations
First Generation :
1951 : UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
- use Vacuum tubes
- bulky & generated lot of heat
- Hundreds of instructions per second
- reliability was less (frequent failures)
- memory less (capacity in 1000
characters) – magnetic drum
--- punched cards (input & output)
 … Computer Generations
Second Generation :
1959 : Vacuum tubes were replace by Transistors
- Magnetic Discs
- Thousands of instructions per second
- reliability was less (frequent failures)
- memory less (capacity in 1000
characters) – magnetic core
--- punched cards (input & output)
 … Computer Generations
3rd Generation :
Mid 1960:
• Integrated Circuits
• Greater speed, I/O capabilities
 Computer Generations
4th Generation :
• LSI (very Large Scale Integration)
• Thin wafer films – used MOS ( Metal Oxide
Semiconductor)
First Second Third Fourth Fifth ?
Bulky – Room Size - closet Disk size – Mini Typewriter size – Credit card sized
Size computer Micro computer
One component Hundred of Thousands of Hundreds of Millions of
per circuit components per components per Thousands of components per
circuit circuit components per circuit
circuit
Hundreds of Thousands of Millions of Tens of millions Billions of
instructions per instructions per instructions per of instructions instructions per
second (speed) second second per second second

Failures - hourly Failures - daily Failures - weeks Failures - Failures - years

(unreliable) (unreliable) (somewhat months
unreliable)

Memory – Memory – Ten of Memory – Memory – Memory – Billion

thousands of thousands of Hundred of Hundred of of characters
characters characters thousands thousands
characters characters
First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Vacuum tubes Transistors Integrated Large scale ICs VLSI
circuits
Main memory – Main memory – Main memory – LSI VLSI
Magnetic Drum Magnetic Core Magnetic Core semiconductor semiconductor
circuits circuits

Secondary Secondary Secondary Magnetic disk, VLSI

memory – memory – memory – optical disk, …
Magnetic Drum Magnetic Disk Magnetic Disk
& Tape & Tape & Tape

Input – punched Input – punched Input – key to KB data entry, Speech input
cards cards tape and disk optical scanning

Output – Output – Output – video Video displays, Graphic displays,

punched cards & punched cards & display & printed printed output voice responses
printed reports printed reports reports
 Type of Computers
(based on functions)
1 . Analog computers
(establishing similarities between two
quantities)
• They represent numbers by a physical quantity
(eg : angle created by two lines, length of an
object, voltage in a ckt, …)
 Type of Computers
(based on functions)
1 . Digital computers

• Represent data in numbers

• They can count, rather than measure
 Type of Computers
(based on functions)
1 . Hybrid computers
• include best features of both Analog &
Digital
• They are used for specific purposes in which
the input data, a form of measurement is
converted into digits and processed by the
computer
Eg: passenger flight RADAR, Robots, …
 Computer Concepts
Central Processing Unit

Input Control Unit Output

Devices (Interprets Instructions Devices
& Directs Processing)
- Key Board - VDU
- Mouse - Printer
ALU
- Touch Screen - Plotter
- Scanner - ….
- Light Pen
Primary Storage
- Voice input ( stores data and Secondary
- ……. program during Storage
Processing ) (Magnetic
Disc, …)
 Central Processing Unit
• Control unit manages & coordinates the entire
computer program
– it obtains the instructions from the program
stored in Memory, interprets the instructions and
issues signals to other circuits
• ALU executes the processing operations called
for by the instructions brought from Main
memory by the control unit
• Arithmetic & Logic of one program and i/o of
another program can happen together
• Multi processing – more than one CPU
• Parallel processing
 Memory & Storage devices

• Primary memory :
is the main memory (Hard disk, RAM) where the operating system
resides.

• Secondary memory :

can be external devices like CD, Pen Drives, magnetic discs, etc.
secondary storage cannot be directly accessed by the CPU and it is
also external memory storage.
 Difference between Primary storage
and secondary storage
Primary Storage Secondary Storage

Temporary (volatile) Permanent

Expensive and smaller Cheaper and larger

Faster Slower

Connected through data Connect through data

buses to CPU cables to CPU
 ROM
• Is a non-volatile chip in which all cells are set
permanently during manufacturing
• Square roots, algorithms , etc .. Are stored in
this
I/O devices
 Computer Terminals;

• A computer terminal is an electronic or

electromechanical hardware device that is
used for entering data into, and displaying or
printing data from a computers.
• Early terminals were inexpensive devices but
very slow compared to punched cards for
input, but as the technology improved and
video displays came
Pointing device - Computer Definition

• An input device used to move the pointer

(cursor) on screen.
• The major pointing device is the mouse for
the desktop computer and the touchpad for
the laptop, although many road warriors bring
along a mouse.
• Pointing sticks are available on some laptops,
and a small number of users prefer trackballs
over the mouse.
 Output devices

• 3D printer
• Braille Reader
• Headphones
• Monitor
• Plotter
• Printer
• Projector
• Speakers
• TV
• Drives such as a CD and USB are also
considered storage devices.
• Printed Output
( printers, plotters, …)
OMR (Optical Mark Reader)
• It detects the presence of ordinary pen/pencil
marks on special documents
• Data can be directly transferred into the
computer
• The patterns are converted into electric pulses
with the stored pattern
Eg: competitive exams answer paper
 Peripheral Devices
• A peripheral device is "an ancillary device “
used to put information into and get
information out of the computer
• Three categories of peripheral devices exist
based on their relationship with the
computer:
• an input device sends data or instructions to
the computer - such as a mouse, keyboard,
image scanner, barcode reader, light pen,
microphone, digital camera, webcam….
• an output device provides output from the
computer, such as a computer monitor,
projector, printer, …
• an input/output device performs both input
and output functions, such as a computer data
storage device (including a disk drive, USB
flash drive, memory card, and tape drive) and
a touchscreen.
• Many modern electronic devices, such as
digital watches, smartphones, and tablet
computers, have interfaces that allow them to
be used as computer peripheral devices.
Light pen
 Printers
• Character printers
• Line Printers
• Page printers
 … Printers
(Character printer)
Dotmatrix Printer
• Each character (letter) is formed with a series
of dots
• Impact printer (use electromechanical
mechanism -> hammer strikes a ribbon)
 Character printer

Thermal printers
• Prints on a special paper using a print head
• Non impact
Inkjet Printers
• Sprays small drops of ink on to the paper to form
printed characters
• The ink has a high iron content, which is affected
by the magnetic fields of the printer
• The magnetic field causes the ink to take the
shape of a character
 Line printer
• Are impact printers (electromechanical)
• Two types – Drum & chain (characters in a
print chain)
 Page printer
• Non – impact
• Use electrostatic or optical methods
• Laser beam
 Plotters
• Drum
• Flatbed
• Electronic (uses a fixed writing head with
addressable electrodes)
As paper passes through, graphics are
printed
 Optical discs
• Data recording by laser light which converts
into electric signals
• Used for image processing, GIS, …
 Telecommunication Hardware
(Network Hardware )

• Let's say you're in charge of setting up a

computer network for an office building. Every
desk has a computer on it, and there are also
some printers and other peripheral devices sitting
around. What are you going to need in terms of
hardware to set up the network?
• You probably guessed that you're going to need
some cables, but what else? Time to sit down and
make a shopping list before you head out to the
computer store.
 Transmission Media

• The first thing to consider is how you plan to transmit

data across the network.
• The transmission media of a computer network
describes the material substances that carry energy
waves, which include the data being transferred.
• The two main categories are wired, or guided, which
uses physical cables, and wireless, or unguided, which
uses electromagnetic waves that can travel through a
vacuum or a medium, such as air.
• Wireless signals do not require a physical medium,
such as cables.
• The most commonly used wired connections
use twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables and
fiber optic cables.
• Twisted-pair cables consist of individual
copper wires that are twisted into pairs. The
wires are wrapped in an insulation material.
• Twisted-pair cables are widely used for
telephone service.
• A coaxial cable consists of a copper or aluminum wire
wrapped inside an insulating layer.
• Most cable TV companies use coaxial cables.
• A fiber optic cable consists of a central fiberglass core
surrounded by several layers of protective material. This
type of cable transmits light rather than electronic signals.
• A light emitting diode (LED) or laser is used to create the
light pulses. The transmission speed of a fiber optic cable is
much faster compared to the other cables.
• Most networks built today use a fiber optic cable because
of its superior speed, but coaxial cable is also very
common.
 Repeaters, Hubs and Switches

• A repeater is a device that receives electronic signals,

cleans them and retransmits them at a higher power
level. Signals transmitted over cable tend to degrade
over long distances. Repeaters are needed so that the
signal can travel longer distances.
• A hub is a networking device used to connect multiple
devices directly to the network using cables. Each
connection is called a 'port.' The connections typically
consist of a fiber optic Ethernet cable. When the hub
receives data at one of its ports, it distributes the data
to the other ports in the network. Typically, a hub
sends all the data it receives to all the other ports.
 Routers and Gateways
• Routers are communication devices used to connect two different
networks. A router sorts incoming data and distributes it to the
correct destination. For example, if you have a network within a
single office building, many different devices from within the
network may access resources outside the network. The best
example of this would be the Internet. A router ensures that
requests from within the network for information over the Internet
are distributed to the correct computer within the network.
• The Internet itself uses numerous routers to direct all the traffic
taking place. Such routers are typically very large and heavy-duty
pieces of hardware, designed to handle huge amounts of data
traffic.
• Routers can be used for wired connections, wireless connections or
both. A router that provides a wireless connection is referred to as a
'wireless router.'
 Multiprocessor Hardware

• A multiprocessor is a computer system with

two or more central processing units (CPUs),
with each one sharing the common main
memory as well as the peripherals. This helps
in simultaneous processing of programs.
• The key objective of using a multiprocessor is
to boost the system’s execution speed, with
other objectives being fault tolerance and
application matching.
• A good illustration of a multiprocessor is a
single central tower attached to two computer
systems.
• A multiprocessor is regarded as a means to
improve computing speeds, performance and
cost-effectiveness, as well as to provide
enhanced availability and reliability.
 Types of Computer Systems (Mainframe,
Minicomputer, Microcomputer);

Microcomputers (personal computers)

• Microcomputers became the most common
type of computer in the late 20th century.
• The term “microcomputer” was introduced
with the advent of systems based on single
chip microprocessors.
• The best-known early system was the Altair
8800, introduced in 1975.
These computers include:
• Desktop computers – A case put under or on a
desk. The display may be optional, depending on
use. The case size may vary, depending on the
required expansion slots. Very small computers of
this kind may be integrated into the monitor.
• In-car computers (carputers) – Built into
automobiles, for entertainment, navigation, etc.
• Game consoles – Fixed computers built
specifically for entertainment purposes such
as(video games).
• Smaller microcomputers are also called mobile devices:
• Laptops and notebook computers– Portable and all in
one case.
• Tablet computer – Like laptops, but with a touch-
screen, entirely replacing the physical keyboard.
• Smartphones, smartbooks, PDAs and palmtop
computers – Small handheld computers with limited
hardware.
• Programmable calculator– Like small handhelds, but
specialized on mathematical work.
• Handheld game consoles – The same as game
consoles, but small and portable.
Minicomputers (midrange computers)

• Minicomputers(colloquially, minis) are a class

of multi-user computersthat lie in the middle
range of the computing spectrum, in between
the smallest mainframe computers and the
largest single-user systems (microcomputers
or personal computers).
 Mainframe computers

• The term mainframe computer was created to

distinguish the traditional, large, institutional
computer intended to service multiple users from
the smaller, single user machines. These
computers are capable of handling and
processing very large amounts of data quickly.
• Mainframe computers are used in large
institutions such as government, banks and large
corporations. They are measured in MIPS (million
instructions per second) and can respond to
hundreds of millions of users at a time.
 Supercomputers
• A Supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical
calculations such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations,
theoretical astrophysics, and complex scientific computations.
• A supercomputer is a computer that is at the front-line of current processing
capacity, particularly speed of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather
fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to become typical of
tomorrow's ordinary computer.
• Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per
second, or FLOPS. An example of a floating point operation is the calculation of
mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability,
memory size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth
and latency, supercomputers are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not
cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing.
• Transaction processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server
computers or mainframes. They are mainly kept in a cool environment for proper
functions.
 Classes by function
Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing one
or more services.

• For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a

"database server".
• "File servers" manage a large collection of computer files.
• "Web servers" process web pages and web applications.

• Many smaller servers are actually personal computers that have

been dedicated to provide services for other computers. A server
is expected to be reliable (e.g. error-correction of RAM; redundant
cooling; self-monitoring, RAID), fit for running for several years,
and giving useful diagnosis in case of an error.

• For increased security and reliability, the server may be mirrored

 Virtual machines
• A server may run several virtual machines (VMs) for different
activities, supplying the same environment to each VM as if it ran
on dedicated hardware.

• Different operating systems (OS) can therefore be run at the same

time. This technology approach needs special hardware support to
be useful and was first the domain of mainframes and other large
computers.

• Nowadays, most personal computers are equipped for this task, but
for long-term operation or critical systems, specialized server
hardware may be needed.

• Another approach is to implement VMs on the operating system

level, so all VMs run on the same OS instance (or incarnation), but
are fundamentally separated to not interfere with each other.
 Workstations
• are computers that are intended to serve one
user and may contain special hardware
enhancements not found on a personal
computer.
• By the mid 1990s personal computers reached
the processing capabilities of mini computers and
workstations. Also, with the release of multi-
tasking systems such as OS/2, Windows NT and
Linux, the operating systems of personal
computers could do the job of this class of
machines.
 Classes by usage
Public computer
• Computers in a library for public use
• Public computer are open for public uses, possibly as
an Interactive kiosk. There are many places one can
use them, such as cybercafes, schools and libraries.
• They are normally fire-walled and restricted to run
only their pre-installed software. The operating system
is difficult to change and/or resides on a file server. For
example, "thin client" machines in educational
establishments may be reset to their original state
between classes.
• Public computers are not expected to keep an
individual's data files.
 Personal computer

• A personal computer has one user who may also

be the owner
• This user often may use all hardware resources,
has complete access to any part of the computer
and has rights to install/remove software.
• Personal computers normally store personal
files, and often the owner/user is responsible for
routine maintenance such as removing unwanted
files and virus-scanning.
 Shared computer

• These are computers where different people might log on

at different times; unlike public computers, they would
have usernames and passwords assigned on a long-term
basis, with the files they see and the computer's settings
adjusted to their particular account.
• Often the important data files will reside on a central file
server, so a person could log onto different computers yet
still see the same files. The computer (or workstation)
might be a "thin client“ , otherwise it may have its own disk
for some or all system files, but usually will need to be
networked to the rest of the system for full functionality.
• Such systems require a system administrator to set up and
maintain the hardware and software.
 Display computer
• Computers that are used just to display selected
material (usually audio-visual, or simple slide
shows) in a shop, meeting or trade show.
• These computers may have more capabilities
than they are being used for; they are likely to
have WiFi and so be capable of Internet access,
but are rarely firewalled (but have restricted port
access or monitored in some way).
• Such computers are used and maintained as
appliances, and not normally used as the
primary store for important files
 Computer Software
(System Software & Application Software)
• System software is computer software designed to provide a
platform to other software.
• Examples of system software include operating systems,
computational science software, game engines, industrial
automation, and software as a service applications.
• In contrast to system software, software that allows users to do
things like create text documents, play games, listen to music, or
surf the web is called application software.
• In the early days of computing most application software was
custom-written by computer users to fit their specific hardware and
requirements.
• In contrast, system software was usually supplied by the
manufacturer of the computer hardware and was intended to be
used by most or all users of that system.
• The line where the distinction should be drawn is not always clear. Many
operating systems bundle application software. Such software is not
considered system software when it can be uninstalled usually without
affecting the functioning of other software. Exceptions could be e.g. web
browsers such as Internet Explorer where Microsoft argued in court that it
was system software that could not be uninstalled. Later examples are
Chrome OS and Firefox OS where the browser functions as the only user
interface and the only way to run programs (and other web browsers can
not be installed in their place), then they can well be argued to be (part of)
the operating system and hence system software.
• Another borderline example is cloud-based software. This software
provides services to a software client (usually a web browser or a
JavaScript application running in the web browser), not to the user
directly, and is therefore systems software. It is also developed using
system programming methodologies and systems programming languages.
Yet from the perspective of functionality there is little difference between
a word processing application and word processing web application.
• Application software, or simply applications, are often called productivity
programs or end-user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks,
such as creating documents, spreadsheets, databases and publications, doing
online research, sending email, designing graphics, running businesses, and even
playing games
• Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as simple
as a calculator application or as complex as a word processing application. When
you begin creating a document, the word processing software has already set the
margins, font style and size, and the line spacing for you. But you can change these
settings, and you have many more formatting options available. For example, the
word processor application makes it easy to add color, headings, and pictures or
delete, copy, move, and change the document's appearance to suit your needs.
• Microsoft Word is a popular word-processing application that is included in the
software suite of applications called Microsoft Office. A software suite is a group
of software applications with related functionality. For example, office software
suites might include word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, and
email applications. Graphics suites such as Adobe Creative Suite include
applications for creating and editing images, while Sony Audio Master Suite is used
for audio production.
• A Web browser, or simply browser, is an
application specifically designed to locate,
retrieve, and display content found on the
Internet.
• By clicking a hyperlink or by typing the URL of a
website, the user is able to view Web sites
consisting of one or more Web pages. Browsers
such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome, are just a few of the many available to
choose from.
 Operating Systems and Control Programs
• OS is the software that controls the operation
of the computer.
– CPU time, memory space, file storage space, I/O
devices, …
– Acts as a manager of the resources
– OS is viewed as a control program, because it
manages the execution of the programs to
prevent errors improper use of the computer.
• Control Programs – monitor how the Hardware to be used
(eg : LOAD command will make the particular program to be
loaded into the computer’s Memory from the secondary
storage)
 Operating System
• Program modules that governs the resources
such as Processors, Storage, I/O devices, Files
• Primary objective is to maximise the
productivity of the computer
• Acts as the interface between Hardware &
Application software
• Minimises human intervention
 Operating System Functions
1. Job Management
(preparing, scheduling, monitoring)
2. Resource Management
controlling the use of other programs
3. Data Management
controlling the I/O, storage & retrieval
 Components of OS
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• I/O Management
• Device Management
• File Management
 OS types
• Single user (DOS)
• Batch OS (IBM OS/VS1)
• Multiprocessing OS (Linux, UNIX, Windows)
• Time sharing OS (UNIX)
• Distributed OS (Sun Microsystems)
 Multi-programming or virtual storage
• More than one programs are processed at the
same time
• Storage is divided into “pages” and this will be
taken from the secondary storage to RAM
• JCL (Job Control Languages)
control commands activate the specific parts
of the process
Utility service programs :
• are routine programs of general nature which are
often required to be used during the processing
of the application systems
eg: - copying files from one device to another
- Editors
- Sorting
- file maintenance
- Debuggers
• Translators : Compilers & Assemblers
(convert high level & Assembly language
program into machine language)
 Computer Languages

Low Level High Level 4 GLs

Assembly Machine
Language Language
High Level Languages

– 3 GLs
FORTRAN, COBOL, C#, Java, …

- 4 GLs
- Provide facilities for Report writing & Screen
layout
- SQL query language, LISP, ..
 Program Layers
Application Programs

Communication
Control DBMS
Programs
Utilities

Operating System
Hardware
 Computer
Software

System Software Application Software

System
System System General Application
Support
Management Development Purpose Specific
Programs
Programs Programs
( utilities)

- OS - Translators - programming - Wordoce eg:

- Editors Languages processing - Accounting
- DBMS - Debuggers - Spread - Sales
- - File maintenance sheet
- Graphics
 DataBase Management Systems

• DBMS stands for database management system;

in other words, a system that manages
databases.
• Examples of DBMSes are Oracle and SQL Server.
• These are systems that can be used to manage
transactional databases, such as HR systems,
banking systems and so on.
• These are typically optimized for performing
transactions
 File Concepts
• A file is an abstract data type defined and implemented by the
operating system.
• It is a sequence of logical records. Files are mapped by the
operating system onto physical devices. A file is a named collection
of related information that is recorded on secondary storage.
• Commonly files represent programs and data.

Data files may be numeric, alphabetic or binary. Files may be free

form, such as text files or may be formatted rigidly. The information
in a file is defined by its creator. Different types of information may
be stored in a file – source programs object programs, executable
programs, numeric data, text, payroll records, and so on.
 File Organisation Model
1. Pile Access File Organisation:
• Pile file contains a set of records in no particular order.
The records are stored as they arrive.

• They do not follow any particular sequence of attribute

values.
• This method of storing records is adopted when it is
not possible to arrange the records in any logical order,
when the fields of the record are not well defined and
the exact usage of the file cannot be anticipated.
• Files are generally created in this mode by punching
the documents in the order they arrive. The pile so
created may be then organised into another mode.
• Location of a record in a pile file can be done by
sequentially searching the records till the desired value
of the key attribute is reached.
• Addition of new records in a pile file is very simple.
New records are added at the end of the file.
• Changes and deletions of records in pile file stored on
random access media can be done by locating the
record and changing its contents or flagging the record
to indicate that the record has been invalidated.
• The file may be reorganized periodically to remove the
holes created by the deletion of records.
 File Organisation Model # 2. Sequential
Access File Organisation:
• In sequential organisation, record occurrences are referenced in the
order that they are stored physically. Data stored on cards and
tapes are necessarily stored sequentially. Direct access devices such
as disks may be, but are not necessarily referenced sequentially.
• Sometimes the processing is best done through sequential access,
even when direct access devices are used. Such is the case when
many records of a file must be accessed to satisfy a request for
data.
• In a sequential file, records are maintained in the logical sequence
of their primary key values. The processing of a sequential file is
conceptually simple but inefficient for random access. However, if
access to the file is strictly sequential, a sequential file is suitable. A
sequential file could be stored on a sequential storage device such
as a magnetic tape.
 File Organisation Model # 3. Indexed
(inverted) Access File Organisation:
• In the inverted file organisation, one index is
maintained for each key attribute of the
record. The index file contains the value of the
key attribute followed by the addresses of all
the records in the main file with the same
value of the key attribute.
 File Organisation Model # 4. Indexed
Sequential Access File Organisation
• The retrieval of a record from a sequential file, on average, requires access to
half the records in the file, making such enquiries not only I inefficient but very
time consuming for large files. To improve the query response time of a
sequential file, a type of indexing technique can be added.
• An index is a set of < key, address > pairs. Indexing associates a set of
orderable quantities, which are usually smaller in number or their properties,
provide a mechanism for faster search. The purpose of indexing is to expedite
the search process. Indexes created from a sequential (or sorted) set of
primary keys are referred to as index sequential.
• A sequential (for sorted on primary keys) file that is indexed is called an index
sequential size. The index provides for random access to records, while the
sequential nature of the file provides easy access to the subsequent records as
well as sequential processing. An additional feature of this file system is the
overflow area. This feature provides additional space for record addition
without necessitating the creation of a new file.
• Merits/Advantages:
• 1. Permits Quick access to records in a relatively efficient
way when this activity is a small fraction of the work load.
• 2. Permits the efficient and economical use of sequential
processing techniques when the activity rate is high.
• Demerits/Drawbacks:
• 1. Less efficient in the use of storage space than some other
alternatives.
• 2. Relatively expensive hardware and software resources
are required.
• 3. Slow retrieval compared to random access as searching
of index requires time.
 File Organisation Model # 5. Direct
Access File Organisation:
• Indexes sequential access is suitable for buyer’s stock data because
his file must be accessed both sequentially and directly, and
updating is done periodically up to the minute information is not
required. Many applications on the other hand, require both on
time retrieval and on both line update to maintain the most current
information possible.
• Stockbrokers, for example, need both rapid update and retrieval of
stock price data. Airlines require rapid update and retrieval of
passenger data, and automated teller machines require fast access
to banking records.
• Direct access to large indexed sequential access method (ISAM)
files is slowed by the fact that the indexes and perhaps overflow
areas must be searched before the desired record can be
transferred to main memory. Even worse update of (ISAM), files is
slowed by the need to update indexes and pointers and to transfer
records from primary to overflow areas.
• In this approach, an algorithm is used to compute the address of a record.
The primary key value is the input to the algorithm and the block address
of the record is the output.
• To implement the approach, a portion of the storage space is reserved for
the file. This space must be large enough to hold the file plus some
allowance for growth. Then an algorithm that generates the appropriate
address for a given primary key is devised.
• The algorithm is commonly called a hashing algorithm and the direct
access method is referred to as hashed access. The process of converting
primary key values into addresses is called key-to-address transformation.
• More than one logical record usually fits into a block, so we may think of
the reserved storage area as being broken into record slots sequentially
numbered from 1 to n. These sequential numbers are called relative
record numbers, relative pointers, or relative addresses, because they
indicate the position of the record relative to the beginning of the file.
• Merits/Advantages:
• 1. Transactions need not be sorted.
• 2. Different discs or disc units are not required for updating records
as existing records may be amended by overwriting.
• 3. It is also possible to process direct file records sequentially in a
record key sequence.
• 4. A direct file organisation is most suitable for interactive on line
applications such as air line or railway reservation systems, teller
facility in banking application, etc.
• 5. Immediate access to records for updating purposes is possible.
• 6. Random inquiries which are too frequent in business situations
can be easily handled.
• Demerits/Drawbacks:
• 1. May be less efficient in the use of storage space than sequentially
organised file.
• 2. Expensive hardware and software resources are required.
• 3. Relative complexity of programming.
• . System design around it is complex and costly.
• 5. Data may be accidentally erased or even written unless special
precautions are taken.
• 6. Special security measures are necessary for on line direct files
that are accessible from several stations.
• 7. File updation (addition and deletion records) is more difficult as
compared to sequential files.
 RecordKey;

• Primary key, secondary key

• TCP/IP concepts. Conceptually, the TCP/IP
protocol stack consists of four layers, each
layer consisting of one or more protocols.
• A protocol is a set of rules or standards that
two entities must follow so as to allow each
other to receive and interpret messages sent
to them.
• A CGI script (or CGI program) is the simplest
way to put a program online that remote users
can send input to.
• The classic example would be a search engine.
A search box in a web page is implemented as
a HTML Form in the HTML code for the page.
• This passes its input to the remote CGI script
for processing.
• Surfer – browser
• A content provider
Who gives the content
 Importance of Computers
Computers have become a part of day to day life
• Speed
• Undertake boring & repetitive task
• Without errors
• Dangerous & critical tasks
• Provide information for decision making
• Offer services in Medicine & Science
• Entertainment & Education
• Engineering field – Robotics

People have become more Productive

 Areas of Computers
• Airline reservation
• Hospitals Management
• Weather forecasting
• Education
• Business Graphics
• …..
 Advantages of using computers
• Speed
• Storage
• Accuracy
• Automaticity
• Versatality
• Reliabilty
• Diligence
 Disadvatages
• Commonsense lacking
• Memory without brain
• …
 Characteristics of computers
• Speed
• Storage
• Store a sequence of instructions for computer
to obey
• Communicate with other systems
 Criteria for using the computers
• Advantages v/s disadvantages
Spreadsheet Processor
Data representation & Number system
• Binary -> 0 & 1
• 1 -> spot magnetised in one direction
• 0 -> in the opposite direction
Data representation & Number system
• OR / AND / NOT Gates
 Number System
• Decimal – base 10
• Binary – base 2
• Conversion of Decimal to Binary &
Binary to Decimal
Examples :
 Processing requirements
• Requirements to see the way in which output
data is obtained from the input
Eg: Average, Total, Grand total, square root
 Arithmetic & Logic operations
• Arithmetic -> +, -, x ,
• Logical operations – gives True / False
Eg: x > y
 Tele-immersion
• Tele-immersion is designed and developed to
allow users in geographically distributed
sites to collaborate in real-time in a shared
simulated environment.
• Tele-Immersion (TI) is defined as the
integration of audio and video conferencing,
via image-based modeling, with collaborative
virtual reality (CVR) in the context of data-
mining & significant computation.
• Tele-Immersion is a new medium that enables a user to
share a virtual space with remote participants. The user is
immersed in a 3D world that is transmitted from a remote
site. This medium for human interaction, enabled by digital
technology approximates the illusion that a person is in the
same physical space as others, even though they may be
thousands of miles distant.
• It combines the display and interaction techniques of
virtual reality with new computer-vision technologies. Thus
with the aid of this new technology, users at geographically
distributed sites can collaborate in real-time in a shared,
simulated, hybrid environment submerging in one another
presence and feel as if they are sharing the same physical
space.
• Tele-immersion technology
• Tele-immersion technology utilizes arrays of
cameras and microphones to capture 3D
scenes in real time.
• By having this setup at multiple remote sites
and streaming the 3D data between the
various locations one can provide users with a
level of interaction currently not attainable by
conventional 2D systems
 E-Commerce
• Electronic Marketing
• Buying and selling of Goods and Services over
electronic system (for eg: internet and other
computer network)
 E-Commerce
• Consumer uses the web browser to access the
Merchant’s website
• Amazone.in
 Types of E-Commerce
1. B2B
Manufacturer to wholesaler
Eg: Dell computer order parts from other
company
 Types of E-Commerce
1. B2C
Selling products online to the Customer
 Types of E-Commerce
1. B2E
Selling products to the Employees
 Types of E-Commerce
1. C2C
Sites offering Classifieds, Auctions, and forums
were individuals can buy & Sell
Eg : eBay’s Auction service
 Advantages of E-Commerce
• No entry cost
• Reduces transactions cost
• Access to global market
• No checkout queues
• Reduced prices
• Wide selection to cater to all consumers
 Disadvantages of E-Commerce
• Unable to examine products personally
• Not everyone has access to internet
• Possibility of credit card theft
• All stocks are not available on the net
Thank You
 Database Management
Database Models
• Hierarchial
• Network
• Relational
• Advantage of DBMS over Traditional file
• DML
• DDL
• Big data
 Knowledge Management
• Knowledge Pyramid
• Expert Systems
• Artificial Intelligence
• Robotics
• Google Car
• Video Conferencing