Stat 218- Statistics in Research

(with Computer Laboratory)

Graduate School

Erna V. Yabut, Ph.D

Statistics

Statistics deals with the collection,

organization, data treatment, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data.

Statistics applies to a scientific, industrial, or

societal problem, it is conventional to begin with a
statistical population or a statistical model
process to be studied.
Divisions of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics
 deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, and computation of data to
describe the samples under investigation.

 helps reveal patterns in one or more sets of data

through numerical analysis
 Inferential Statistics

 concerned with making judgments (or

inferences) about a population based on the
properties of some sample obtained from the
population.

 referred to those used after analysis to make

conclusions, evaluations and further predictions
based on previous research.
Population
The entire collection of all the
elements we are interested in is called a
population. (These elements might be
people, automobiles, data values, etc.)

A collection of some of the elements

obtained from the population is called a
Sample from the population.
Population vs Sample
Parameter vs Statistic

A numerical property of a
population is called a parameter.

A numerical property of a sample

is called a statistic. (by “numerical
property” we mean a property that is
expressible as a number.)
Variable

A variable is a statistical quantity

(often denoted by X) that is capable
of assuming several values.

Used to stand for something

which does not a have a permanent
value.
A variable is any characteristics, number,
or quantity that can be measured or
counted.

A variable may also be called a data item.

Example:

Number of rebounds per game

Filipinos who died in AIDS
Power rate increase
Example:

Number of rebounds per game

Filipinos who died in AIDS
Power rate increase
Classification of Variables

Discrete

Continuous
 Discrete

Quantities that can assume finite

values only; values that can be
counted
Example:
 Tossing a coin
 Number of enrollees/ drop-outs
 Items in a test
 Registered voters
Discrete
 countable in a finite amount of time.

 For example,
You can count the change in your pocket.
You can count the money in your bank
account.
You could also count the amount of money
in everyone’s bank account.
It might take you a long time to count that
last item, but the point is — it’s still
countable.
Continuous

Quantities that can be so close to

one another, that spaces
between them can be neglected
 Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal Level

numbers or symbols are used simply to classify an

object, person, or characteristics into categories

the categories must be distinct, non-overlapping

and exhaustive

weakest level of measurement

 Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal Level
Examples:

Color of an individual’s hair Sex of child

• black • male

• grey • female

• red
• brown
 Levels of Measurement

2. Ordinal Level

contains the properties of the nominal level

the numbers assigned to categories of any variable

may be ranked or ordered in some low – to high
manner
 Levels of Measurement

2. Ordinal Level
Examples:

Socio-Economic Classification Size of T-shirt

• AB • Double extra large

• C • Extra Large

• DE • Large
• Medium
• Small
 Levels of Measurement

3. Interval Level

contains the properties of the ordinal level

the distances between any two numbers on the

scale are known sizes

characterized by a common and constant unit of

measurement
 Levels of Measurement

3. Interval Level

units of measurement are arbitrary

the number zero does not imply the absence of the

characteristic under consideration (thus, the zero
point is arbitrary)
Examples:
• Temperature in OC and OF
• Intelligence quotient (75, 100, 120, 150, etc.)
 Levels of Measurement

4. Ratio Level

contains the properties of the interval level

has a true zero point, that is, the number zero

indicates the absence of the characteristic under
consideration

strongest level of measurement

Examples:
• height in meters, feet, etc.
• weight in kilograms, pounds, etc.
 Collection and
Presentation of Data
Determining Sample Size (n)
Slovin’s Formula
N
n =
1 + Ne2
Where:
n - sample size
N - population size
e - marginal error
(0.05 or 0.01)
Example
Determine the sample size from a
population of 10, 000 at 0.05 marginal error.
10,000
n =
1 + 10,000(0.05)2
10,000
=
1 + 10,000(0.0025)
10,000
=
1 + 25
10,000
= = 384.6 = 385
26
Sampling Techniques
 Simple Random
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
Random Sampling
A random sample is a sample
obtained from the population in such a
manner that all samples of the same
size have equal likelihood of being
selected. Any method of obtaining
random samples is called random
sampling.
Systematic Sampling
From a list of members of a
population, choose a starting point by
chance and then select every nth
element on the list (for some
appropriate value of n). The result is a
systematic sample.
Example
Suppose a sample size of 12 must be
chosen from 100.
100
Interval = = 8.33 (approximately 8)
12

Starting point (identify starting point)

Samples:
= {4, 12, 20, 28, 36, 44, 52, 60, 68, 76, 84, 92}
Stratified Sampling
If the population is divided into
subpopulations, called strata, and we
take a random sample from each
stratum, the resulting sample is a
stratified sample.
 Stratified Sampling

Proportional Equal
Allocation Allocation
Example:
Stratified Sampling with Proportional
Allocation
Suppose 40% of the student body are
freshmen, 25% sophomores, 20% juniors,
15% seniors.
Stratified sample size (n = 100) with proportional
allocation
Freshmen - 40
Sophomores - 25
Juniors - 20
Seniors - 15
Example
Stratified Sampling with Equal Allocation
Suppose 50 samples are to be chosen from
5 sections
Section N n
A 48 10
B 50 10
C 52 10
D 49 10
E 50 10
N = 249
Cluster Sampling

A cluster sample is obtained by

selecting some of the strata and then
sampling from each of these.
Purposive Sampling

A non probability sampling technique,

where the researcher set a criteria or
requirements on who will be included
as samples
Sample of Convenience

A sample of convenience is a
sample that already exists and is
available for study; the elements in the
sample are not chosen by a chance
process. By contrast, a probability
sample is obtained by a chance process;
each element in the population has a
certain probability of being selected
Methods of Collecting Data

 Direct or Interview Method

 Indirect or Questionnaire Method
 Registration Method
 Experimental method
 Observation
Methods of Collecting Data
 Direct or Interview Method
This method may be considered an oral type of
questionnaire in which the researcher gets the
needed information from the subject or
interviewee verbally and directly in face-to-face
contact.

 Indirect or Questionnaire Method

Written responses are given to prepared
question as intended to elicit answers to the
problems of a study
Methods of Collecting Data
 Registration Method
This data gathering method is governed by
certain laws like registry of births, death,
marriages and licenses.
 Experimental Method
This is used when the objective is to find out
the cause-and-effect relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled conditions. This
method is usually employed by scientific
researchers.
Methods of Presenting Data

 Textual
 Tabular
 Graphical
Methods of Presenting Data
 Textual Method
Collected data are presented in narrative and
paragraph forms.
 Tabular Method
Data are orderly arranged and presented in rows
and columns for an easier and more
comprehensible comparison of figures.
 Graphical Method
Data gathered are presented in visual or pictorial
form. This would enable the researcher to get a
clear view of the relationships of data through
pictures and colored maps.
Organization of Data

Frequency Distribution
Grouped Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution

Given a collection of data values, the

specification of all the distinct values in
the collection together with the number of
times each of these values occurs in the
collection is called its frequency. The
frequency of a data value x is denoted by
fx (or just f).
Example
Construct a frequency distribution for the
following data, which represent the number
of breakdowns for each truck in a fleet of 15
delivery trucks in 1 year.

6 11 5 1 6 6 7 5 7 6 1 7 5 3 6
Solution
The distinct values are 1, 3, 5, 6,7, and 11, which
occur 2, 1, 3, 5, 3, and 1 times, respectively. This
is an adequate description of the frequency
distribution. However, it is also common to
describe the frequency distribution by means of a
table. First column of the table contains the
distinct values. In the second column next to each
distinct value, we record its frequency. So the
frequency distribution is represented as
Solution
x f
1 2
3 1
5 3
6 5
7 3
11 1
 Grouped Frequency Distribution
Refers to the tabulation of data by category or
class interval with corresponding frequency for
each class.
Age No. of employees
20 – 29 30
30 – 39 35 Class
classes 40 – 49 20 frequencies
50 – 59 10
60 – 69 5
Lower limits: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60
Upper limits: 29, 39, 49, 59, 69
Procedure for Constructing a
Grouped Frequency Distribution

Step 1: Find the range (R) by getting the difference

between the highest and the lowest values
in the set of data
Step 2:Determine the number of class interval
(C.I.) or categories. Ideal number of class
interval is 5 to 15.
Step 3: Approximate the size of the class interval
(class size – CS) by dividing the range by
the desired number of class interval.
Procedure for Constructing a
Grouped Frequency Distribution

Step 4: Start from the multiple of the size of the

class interval where the lowest or the
highest score is included, then write the
class interval starting from the lowest
class limit. Succeeding classes will be
obtained in the same manner.
Step 5: Determine the class frequencies
Example
The following are the scores of 120 students in an
80-item pre-test in math.
44 58 73 60 76 65 64 65 75 65 70 44
50 54 74 75 60 62 55 56 63 68 75 49
42 74 55 65 78 60 57 60 64 62 69 40
64 56 59 63 57 54 59 59 58 59 60 46
65 48 45 55 75 61 54 67 55 74 63 73
45 51 49 64 50 51 62 51 53 63 55 47
59 76 60 56 70 52 50 66 50 61 62 48
70 77 69 60 65 60 55 60 54 57 56 42
75 66 70 50 69 53 51 50 58 64 68 45
63 43 64 63 77 64 70 60 65 60 72 74
Example

Range = 78 – 40 = 38
C.I. = 8
C.S. = 38 / 8 = 4.75 or 5
Example

Class Intervals Tally Frequency Class Boundaries Class Marks

75 - 79 10 74.5 - 79.5 77
70 - 74 12 69.5 - 74.5 72
65 - 69 15 64.5 - 69.5 67
60 - 64 30 59.5 - 65.5 62
55 - 59 20 54.5 - 59.5 57
50 - 54 18 49.5 - 54.5 52
45 - 49 9 44.5 - 49.5 47
40 - 44 6 39.5 - 44.5 42
N= 120
Graphical Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution
Histogram - A set of vertical bars having their
bases on the horizontal axis which center
on the class marks and the heights
correspond to the frequencies.
35

30

25
Frequency

20

15

10

0
42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77
Cl ass M ark
Graphical Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution
Frequency Polygon - A line graph where the
class frequencies is plotted against the
classmarks.
35

30

25
Frequency

20

15

10

0
0 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77
Class M ark
Graphical Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution
Cummulative Frequency Polygon - is the graph
of a cummulative frequency distribution

140

120

100
Frequency

80

60

40

20

0
0 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 74.5 79.5
Class M ark
Graphical Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution
Pie Graph or Pie Chart - The pie is subdivided into
segments each of which is proportional in size
to the quantities or percentage it represents.
The entire circle represents the total population.
Education
36%

Health
4%

DILG
4%

Agricultural
Administration National Defense
8% 30%

Public Affairs
18%
 Measures of Centrality and
Variability

Central location in the tendency

of the observations to converge at a
point or at the center of a frequency
distribution.
3 Measures of Central Location

 Mean
 Median
 Mode
Uses of Measures of Central
Location
 Mean
Varies less from sample to sample; all data in the
distribution are used. It affected by extreme
values in the distribution; most stable measure of
central location associated with interval or ratio
data.
3 Measures of Central Location

 Median
Middle value, not affected by the extreme values

 Mode
Appropriate for data that is nominal; it measures
popularity; the value with the highest frequency.
 Data

Ungrouped Grouped
Array or Matrix Frequency Distribution
Computation of Mean for Ungrouped Data

n
∑ xi x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + . . . + xn
i=1
X = =
n n

Where:
∑x - sum of x – values
n - number of items or cases
Example
Nine students got the following scores in a
surprise quiz: 83, 68, 62, 80, 66, 94, 67, 72,
56. Find the mean.

83 + 68 + 62 + 80 + 66 + 94 + 67 + 72 + 56
X =
9

648
= = 72
9
Computation of Mean for Grouped Data

n
∑ fixi f 1 x 1 + f 2 x 2 + f 3 x 3 + . . . + fn x n
i=1
X = =
n n

Where:
f - frequency
x - class mark
n - number of samples
Example
Compute the mean score of 50 students using the
data below
Product of Frequency
Class Interval Frequency Class Mark
and Classmark
(C.I.) (f ) (x) (fx)
94 - 100 2 97 194
87 - 93 3 90 270
80 - 86 9 83 747 3, 688
73 - 79 18 76 1,368
X =
66 - 72 7 69 483
50
59 - 65 6 62 372
52 - 58 2 55 110 = 73.76
45 - 51 3 48 144
n = 50 ∑fx = 3,688
Computation of Median ( x~ )
Ungrouped Data

~ (n + 1)th item
X =
2
Example
There are seven college students in a
classroom with ages 18, 19, 20, 21, 18, 20
and 22. determine the median.
Solution:
Arranges data in descending or ascending order of
magnitude.
22 ~ (n + 1)th item
21 X =
2
20
(7 + 1)th 8th
20 Median = 20 = =
19 2 2
18 = 4th item
18
Example
There are eight men riding in an elevator
ages 18, 19, 48, 28, 46, 20, 22 and 26. Find
the median.
Solution: ~ (n + 1)th item
X =
48 2
46 (8 + 1)th 9th
28 = =
2 2
26
Median = 26 + 22 = 4.5th item
22 2
20
= 24 4th and 5th items are the
19
middle values
18
Remarks:

 If the number of observations is odd,

median is the middle most item
 However, if the number of observations
is even, the median is the average of the
two middle most items.
Computation of Median for Grouped Data

n
-F
~ 2
X = LBmd + i
fmd
Where:
LBmd - Lower class boundary of the median class
n - number of samples
F - less than cummulative frequency before
the median class
Fmd - frequency of the median class
i - class size or class width
Example
Compute the median of the given set of data
less than cummulative
Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries
frequency
40 - 44 9 39.5 - 44.5 80
35 - 39 12 34.5 - 39.5 71
30 - 34 15 29.5 - 34.5 59
25 - 29 19 24.5 - 29.5 44 median class
20 - 24 14 19.5 - 24.5 25
15 - 19 6 14.5 - 19.5 11
10 - 14 5 9.5 - 14.5 5
n = 80
Example
Middle item in grouped data is:
n
th observation
2
80 75
~ - 25 = 24.5 +
X = 24.5 + 2 5 19
19
= 24.5 + 3.95
40 - 25 ~
= 24.5 + 5
19 X = 28.45
(50% or 40 of the samples fall
15
= 24.5 + (5) below 28.45 and 50% fall above
19 the computed median)
Example
Below is the frequency distribution of examination
scores in English for Grade 6. Compute for the
median.
less than cummulative
Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries
frequency
50 - 54 1 49.5 - 54.5 1
55 - 59 3 54.5 - 59.5 4
60 - 64 9 59.5 - 64.5 13
65 - 69 19 64.5 - 69.5 32 median class
70 - 74 13 69.5 - 74.5 45
75 - 79 3 74.5 - 79.5 48
80 - 84 2 79.5 - 84.5 50
n = 50
Example
50
~ - 13
X = 64.5 + 2 5
19

25 - 13
= 64.5 + 5
19

12
= 64.5 + (5)
19
= 64.5 + 3.16
~
X = 67.66
 ^
Mode ( x )

An observation or the item with the

highest frequency in the distribution
 Computation of Mode for Ungrouped Data
Example:
1. The scores in achievement test were distributed as
follows: 95, 80, 96, 85, 95, 81

mode is 95 (unimodal)

2. The blood hemoglobin levels in grams for a group of

8 individuals were recorded as follows: 14.0, 14.6,
15.8, 14.0, 14.6, 14.0, 14.6

mode are 14.0 and 14.6 (bimodal)

Computation of Mode for Grouped Data

^ fmo – fb
X = LBmo + i
2fmo – fb - fa

Where:
LBmo - Lower class boundary of the modal class
fmo - Frequency of the modal class
fb - Frequency before the modal class
fa - Frequency after the modal class
Example
Solve for the mode in the following distribution of test
scores in Mathematics taken by 52 students.

Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries

90 - 99 3 89.5 - 99.5
80 - 89 9 79.5 - 89.5
70 - 79 18 69.5 - 79.5 Modal class
60 - 69 12 59.5 - 69.5
50 - 59 8 49.5 - 59.5
40 - 49 2 39.5 - 49.5
n = 52
Example
^ 18 - 12
X = 69.5 + 10
2(18) – 12 - 9

6
= 69.5 + 10
36 - 21

6
= 69.5 + (10)
15
60
= 69.5 +
15
= 69.5 + 4
^
X = 73.5
Measures of Dispersion
 Range is the difference between the highest (H) and
the lowest (L) data values

R = H–L

 Deviation is the average of the difference between

each data value and the mean
Variance (δ2)
∑ (x - µ)2 ∑ (x - x)2
δ2 = s2 =
N n
population variance sample variance
Measures of Dispersion
Alternative Formula for Computing Variance

N(∑x2) – (∑x)2
δ2 =
N2

n(∑x2) – (∑x)2
s2 =
n(n – 1)
Standard Deviation
Is the square root of the variance

√
∑ (x - µ)2
δ2 = population standard variance
N

√
∑ (x - x)2 sample standard variance
s2 =
n
Example

Given the number of books read by each student

preparing for a term paper in a history class of 10
students: 6, 11, 5, 1, 6, 6, 7, 5, 7, and 6. Find the range,
population variance and standard deviation.
Solution:
a. Range = Highest – Lowest
= 11 – 1
R = 10
b. Population Variance
∑ (x - µ)2
δ2 =
N
Example

∑x
µ =
N

6 + 11 + 5 + 1 + 6 + 6 + 7 + 5 + 7 + 6
=
10
60
=
10

= 6
Example

2
x x-µ (x - µ)
6 0 0
11 5 25
5 -1 1 54
1 -5 25 δ2 = = 5.4
10
6 0 0
6 0 0
7 1 1
δ = √ 5.4 = 2.3
5 -1 1
7 1 1
6 0 0
∑(x - µ) 2 =
54
Another way of computing population
variance
N(∑x2) – (∑x)2
δ2 =
N2
2
x x
6 36
11 121 10(414) – (60)2
δ2 =
5 25 (10)2
1 1
6 36 4140 – 3600
6 36
=
100
7 49
540
5 25 =
7 49 100
6 36
∑x = 60 ∑x 2 414 = 5.4
=
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation
from Grouped Data

√
∑f (x - x)2 ∑f (x - x)2
s2 = sd =
n-1 n-1

or

n(∑x2f) – (∑xf)2

√
n(∑x2f) – (∑xf)2
s2 = sd =
n(n – 1) n(n – 1)
Example

Estimate the sample standard deviation for the test

scores described by the grouped frequency distribution.
Frequency Class Mark
Class Interval xf X 2 f = x(xf)
(f) (x)
45 - 49 2 47 94 4,418
50 - 54 3 52 156 8,112
55 - 59 6 57 342 19,494
60 - 64 4 62 248 15,376
65 - 69 9 67 603 40,401
70 - 74 8 72 576 41,472
75 - 79 3 77 231 17,787
80 - 84 4 82 328 26,896
85 - 89 1 87 87 7,569
n = 40 ∑x f = 2665 2
∑x f = 181,525
Example

√
n(∑x2f) – (∑xf)2
sd =
n (n – 1)

√
40(181,525) – (2,665)2
=
40(39)

√
158,775
=
1,560

= √101.779

sd = 10.09
 Measures of Position
Are used to describe the standing or place occupied by
a data value relative to the rest of the data.

Quantiles – Divide the set of data into several equal parts

 Quartile – Divides the set of data into four equal parts

 Decile – Divides the set of data into ten equal parts
 Percentile – Divides the set of data into one hundred
equal parts
 Measures of Position

Q4 D10 P100
D9 P90
D8 P80
Q3 D7 P70
D6 P60
Median Median Median
Median D5 P50
Q2 D4 P40
D3 P30

D2 P20
Q1 D1 P10

Median Quartile Decile Percentile

 Computation of Quantiles for
Ungrouped Data

 Arrange the scores according to magnitude or size

 Compute for the position of the given quantile in the
distribution
 Starting from the lowest score, locate the score
corresponding to the obtained position in the
distribution.
 If the computation for the position is not a whole
number, then the location would be the next higher
whole number.
 Computation of Quantiles for
Ungrouped Data

i(n)
Qi = For Quartile
4

i(n)
Di = For Decile
10

i(n)
Pi = For Percentile
100
Example

Find the first and third quartile (Q1, Q3), fifth and seventh
decile (D5, D7) and 30th percentile and 80th percentile
(P30, P80) given the following set of data.
40 1(12)
35 Qi = = 3rd item
32
4
9th item 30 Q3 D7 3(12)
28
Q3 = = 9th item
4
25
6th item 22 D5 5(12)
D5 = = 6th item
20 10
18 7(12)
3rd item 15 Q1 D7 = = 8.4 or 9th item
10 10
8
Example

Find the first and third quartile (Q1, Q3), fifth and seventh
decile (D5, D7) and 30th percentile and 80th percentile
(P30, P80) given the following set of data.
40
30(12)
35 P30 = = 3.6 ≈ 4th item
10th item 32 P80 100
9th item 30 Q3 D7
28 80(12)
25 P80 = = 9.6 ≈ 10th item
6th item 22 D5 100
20
4th item 18 P30
3rd item 15 Q1
10
8
Computation of Quantiles for Grouped Data
Quartile:
in
-F
4
Qi = LQi + i
fQi

Where:
LQi - lower limit where (in/4)th item is found
F - less than cummulative frequency before
(iN/4)th item is found
fQi - Frequency of (in/4)th item is found
i - class size
Computation of Quantiles for Grouped Data
Decile:
j*n
-F
10
Dj = LDj + i
fDj

Where:
LDj - lower limit where (j*n/10)th item is found
F - less than cummulative frequency before
(j*n/10)th item is found
fDj - Frequency of (j*n/10)th item is found
i - class size
Computation of Quantiles for Grouped Data
Percentile:
J*n
-F
100
Pj = LPj + i
fpj

Where:
LPj - lower limit where (j*n/100)th item is found
F - less than cummulative frequency before
(j*n/100)th item is found
fPj - Frequency of (j*n/100)th item is found
i - class size
Example
Using the grouped data below, find Q2, D6 and P75
Location of Q2:
2(40)
Frequency Q2 = = 20th
Class Interval < C.F. 4
(f)
45 - 49 3 40 2(40)
40 - 44 4 37 4 - 16
Q2 = 30 + 5
35 - 39 5 33 12
30 - 34 12 28 Q2 class
25 - 29 9 16 20 - 16
= 30 + 5
20 - 24 5 7 12
15 - 19 2 2
n = 40 4
= 30 + 5 = 30+(1.6)
12
Q2 = 31.6
Sample
Using the grouped data below, find Q2, D6 and P75
Location of D6:
6(40)
Frequency D6 = = 24th
Class Interval < C.F. 10
(f)
45 - 49 3 40 6(40)
40 - 44 4 37 10 - 16
D6 = 30 + 5
35 - 39 5 33 12
30 - 34 12 28 Q
D26 class
25 - 29 9 16 24 - 16
= 30 + 5
20 - 24 5 7 12
15 - 19 2 2
n = 40 8
= 30 + 5 = 30+(3.3)
12
D6 = 33.3
Sample
Using the grouped data below, find Q2, D6 and P75
Location of P75:
75(40)
Frequency P75 = = 30th
Class Interval < C.F. 100
(f)
45 - 49 3 40 75(40)
- 28
40 - 44 4 37 P75 = 35 + 100 5
35 - 39 5 33 P75 class 5
30 - 34 12 28 QQ22, Dclass
6 class
25 - 29 9 16 30 - 28
= 35 + 5
20 - 24 5 7 5
15 - 19 2 2
n = 40
= 35 + 2

P75 = 37
Standard Score
Formula for the Z-score:

x – mean
Z =
Standard deviation

When dealing with a population,

x–µ
Z =
δ
When dealing with a sample,
x–x
Z =
sd
 Example
The scores on a science examination had a mean of 40 and a
standard deviation of 6 points. The scores on a mathematics
examination had a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 20
points. Judy received a raw score of 58 on the science
examination and Beth received a raw score of 90 on the
mathematics examination. Which student did better relative to
her class?
Solution:
Judy’s z-score: Beth’s z-score:
x – 40 x – 60
Z = Z =
6 20
58 – 40 90 – 60
= =
6 20
= 3 = 1.5
So, Judy did better relative to her class