Best

Networking Fundamentals
Contributed by iGATE
Proprietary and Confidential

December 10, 2019 -1-
Objectives
This introduction prepares new comers to:

Understand basic Network terminology
Networking fundamentals
TCP/IP addressing and sub-netting
Basic router operation
Configure a Router
Introduction to dynamic routing protocols
Introduction to Advance Networking Technologies

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What is a Network?
• A network consists of two or more

computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs),
exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
• The three basic types of networks include:
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN) Metro Area
December 10, 2019
Network (MAN)
Proprietary and Confidential -3-
Local Area Network
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that

is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as
a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are
LAN computers more than a mile apart.
• In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is

designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as

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well as the software that can be shared by the
computers attached to the network. Computers
connected to the file server are called
workstations. The workstations can be less
powerful than the file server, and they may have
additional software on their hard drives. On most
LANs, cables are used to connect the network
interface cards in each computer.

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Wide Area Network
• See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of

this tutorial for more information on the configuration
of a LAN.
• Wide Area Network
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic
areas, such as Florida, the United States, or the world.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may
be used to connect this type of network.

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• A WAN is complex. It uses multiplexers to
connect local and metropolitan networks to global
communications networks like the Internet.
• To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be

much different than a LAN or a MAN.

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MAN
• It stands for Metropolitan Area Network

• Generally it includes an Network Area in a City.
• The Network devices are generally configured in a Ring
Topology
A new Area Team widely used in Wireless Data Technology is BAN

It stands for Building Area Network

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Networking Devices
• Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred

to as a device.
• These devices are broken up into two classifications.
• end-user devices
• network devices
• End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other
devices that provide services directly to the user.
• Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user
devices together to allow them to communicate.

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Why do we need the OSI Model?
To address the problem of networks increasing in size

and in number, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched many network
schemes and recognized that there was a need to
create a network model that would help network
builders implement networks that could
communicate and work together and therefore,
released the OSI reference model in 1984.

December 10, 2019 - 10 -
Don’t Get Confused.
• ISO - International Organization for Standardization

• OSI - Open System Interconnection
• IOS - Internetwork Operating System
• The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more efficient. The
“ISO” acronym is correct as shown.
• To avoid confusion, some people say “International Standard
Organization.”

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The OSI Reference Model
7 Application The OSI Model will be

used throughout your
6 Presentation
entire networking
5 Session career!
4 Transport
3 Network
Memorize it!
2 Data Link
1 Physical

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Layer 7 - The Application Layer
7 Application This layer deal with All

applications.
6 Presentation
These programs are what
5 Session actually implements the
4 Transport functions performed by
users to accomplish
3 Network various tasks over the
2 Data Link network.
1 Physical
Examples:
 Email
 Web browsers
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Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer
7 Application This layer is responsible

for presenting the data in
6 Presentation
the required format which
5 Session includes:
4 Transport Encryption
Translation
3 Network Compression
2 Data Link
PDU - Formatted Data
1 Physical

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Layer 5 - The Session Layer
7 Application This layer establishes,

manages, and terminates
6 Presentation
sessions between two
5 Session communicating hosts.
4 Transport
Example:
3 Network  Client Software
2 Data Link ( Used for logging in)
1 Physical PDU - Formatted Data

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Layer 4 - The Transport Layer
7 Application It provides end-to-end

communication services for
6 Presentation
applications
5 Session The transport layer provides
4 Transport convenient services such as
connection-oriented data
3 Network stream support, reliability, flow
2 Data Link control, and multiplexing
Eg. TCP & UDP
1 Physical
PDU - Segments

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Layer 3 - The Network Layer
7 Application The network layer is

responsible for packet
6 Presentation
forwarding including routing
5 Session through intermediate routers
4 Transport
Deals with IPv4 and IPv6
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - Packets
1 Physical

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Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
7 Application The data link layer is

responsible for media access
6 Presentation
control, flow control and error
5 Session checking.
4 Transport Logical link control (LLC) for
multiplexing mechanisms
3 Network Media access control (MAC)
2 Data Link addressing and channel
access control mechanisms
1 Physical
PDU - Frames

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Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
7 Application Deals with Physical,

6 Presentation Electrical and Mechanical
Acpects of the connection
5 Session
and the connector.
4 Transport
Examples:
3 Network
 CAT5 (what we have)
2 Data Link Coaxial (like cable TV)
1 Physical Laser Connectors
Fiber optic
 RJ 45 connector , RJ11
connector
19
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Comparing TCP/IP & OSI Models

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Requirements from a Live
Network
1. High Availability / high up time
2. Low Latency
3. No Packet Loss
4. Low Cost of deployment
5. Ease of Maintenance/ Operation
6. Low cost of Operation

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Networking Device Icons

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Physical Layer LAN
Various symbols are used to represent media types.
The function of media is to carry a flow of information

through a LAN. Networking media are considered
Layer 1, or physical layer, components of LANs.
Each media has advantages and disadvantages.

Some of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons
concern:
• Cable length
• Cost
• Ease of installation
• Susceptibility to interference
Coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even free space can
carry network signals. However, the principal medium
that will be studied is Category 5 unshielded twisted-
pair cable (Cat 5 UTP)
23
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
24
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UTP Implementation
• EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.

• The RJ-45 transparent end connector shows eight colored
wires.
• Four of the wires carry the voltage and are considered “tip”
(T1 through 4). The other four wires are grounded and are
called “ring” (R1 through R4). The wires in the first pair in a
cable or a connector are designated as T1 & R1

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Connection Media
• The registered jack (RJ-45) connector and jack are the

most common.
• In some cases the type of connector on a network
interface card (NIC) does not match the media that it
needs to connect to.
• The attachment unit interface (AUI) connector allows
different media to connect when used with the appropriate
transceiver.
• A transceiver is an adapter that converts one type of
connection to another.

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Ethernet Standards
Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an RJ-

45 connector have a particular purpose. A NIC transmits
signals on pins 1 & 2, and it receives signals on pins 3 & 6.

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Remember…
A straight-thru cable has T568B on both ends. A

crossover (or cross-connect) cable has T568B on one end
and T568A on the other. A console cable had T568B on one
end and reverse T568B on the other, which is why it is also
called a rollover cable.

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Straight-Thru or Crossover
• Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

• Switch to router
• Switch to PC or server
• Hub to PC or server
• Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• PC to PC
• Router to PC

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Sources of Noise on Copper Media
Noise is any electrical energy on the

transmission cable that makes it difficult for a
receiver to interpret the data sent from the
transmitter. TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a
cable now requires testing for a variety of
types of noise. Twisted-pair cable is designed
to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in
order to minimize noise. In twisted-pair cable,
a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal.
The wire pair is twisted so that each wire
experiences similar crosstalk. Because a
noise signal on one wire will appear identically
on the other wire, this noise be easily detected
and filtered at receiver. Twisting one pair of
wires in a cable also helps to reduce crosstalk
of data or noise signals from adjacent wires.

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

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Coaxial Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

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Fiber Optic Connectors
• Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers

can be connected to the ports on the transmitter and
receiver.
• The type of connector most commonly used with multimode
fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC connector). On
single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is
frequently used

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Fiber Optic Patch Panels
Fiber patch panels similar to the patch panels used with copper cable.

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Cable Specifications
• 10BASE-T : The T stands for twisted pair.

• 10BASE5 : The 5 represents the fact that a signal can
travel for approximately 500 meters 10BASE5 is often
referred to as Thicknet.
• 10BASE2 : The 2 represents the fact that a signal can
travel for approximately 200 meters 10BASE2 is often
referred to as Thinnet.
• All 3 of these specifications refer to the speed of
transmission at 10 Mbps and a type of transmission that is
baseband, or digitally interpreted. Thinnet and Thicknet are
actually a type of networks, while 10BASE2 & 10BASE5
are the types of cabling used in these networks.

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Ethernet Media Connector Requirements

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Serial Implementation of DTE & DCE
• When connecting directly to a service provider, or to a device such as a

CSU/DSU that will perform signal clocking, the router is a DTE and needs a
DTE serial cable.
• This is typically the case for routers.

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Back-to-Back Serial Connection
When performing a back-to-back

router scenario in a test
environment, one of the routers
will be a DTE and the other will
be a DCE.

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Repeater
• A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.

• Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation. Repeater is a Physical Layer
device

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Hub
• Hubs concentrate
connections. In
other words, they
take a group of
hosts and allow
the network to see
them as a single
unit.
• Hub is a physical
layer device.

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Network Interface Card
• The function of a NIC is to connect a host device to the

network medium.
• A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion
slot on the motherboard or peripheral device of a computer.
The NIC is also referred to as a network adapter.
• NICs are considered Data Link Layer devices because
each NIC carries a unique code called a MAC address.

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Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.
• One part of the topology definition is the physical topology,

which is the actual layout of the wire or media.
• The other part is the logical topology, which defines how the
media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

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Physical Topologies

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Bus Topology
• A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is

terminated at both ends.
• All the hosts connect directly to this backbone.

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Star Topology
Also Known as Hub and Spoke Topology

A star topology connects all cables to a central point of
concentration.

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Extended Star Topology
An extended star topology links individual stars together

by connecting the hubs and/or switches. This topology
can extend the scope and coverage of the network.

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Hierarchical Topology
A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended

star

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Mesh Topology
• A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much

protection as possible from interruption of service.
• Each host has its own connections to all other hosts.
Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one
location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology.
• No of connections = n(n - 1) / 2 , n is the no. of Nodes

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Ring Topology
• A ring topology connects one host to the next and the

last host to the first.
• This creates a physical ring of cable.

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LANs, MANs, & WANs
• One early solution was the creation of local-area

network (LAN) standards which provided an open set of
guidelines for creating network hardware and software,
making equipment from different companies
compatible.
• What was needed was a way for information to move
efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but
also from one business to another.
• The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area
networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).

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LANs

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Wireless LAN Organizations and Standards
• In cabled networks, IEEE is the prime issuer of

standards for wireless networks. The standards have
been created within the framework of the regulations
created by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC).
• A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

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Cellular Topology for Wireless

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WANs

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Cisco hierarchical model

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Layer 2 : MAC Address
MAC address is 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve hexadecimal

digits.MAC addresses are sometimes referred to as burned-in addresses (BIA)
because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are copied into
random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.

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Bridge
Bridges are Data Link layer devices. Connected host addresses are learned and
stored on a MAC address table. Each bridge port has a unique MAC address

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Switch
• Switches are Data Link

layer devices.
• Each Switch port has a
unique MAC address.
• Connected host MAC
addresses are learned
and stored on a MAC
address table.

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Switching Modes
• cut-through: A switch starts to transfer the frame as soon as

the destination MAC address is received. No error checking is
available.
• Must use synchronous switching.
• store-and-forward : At the other extreme, the switch can
receive the entire frame before sending it out the destination
port. This gives the switch software an opportunity to verify the
Frame Check Sum (FCS) to ensure that the frame was reliably
received before sending it to the destination. Must be used with
asynchronous switching.
• fragment-free : A compromise between the cut-through and
store-and-forward modes. Fragment-free reads the first 64
bytes, which includes the frame header, and switching begins
before the entire data field and checksum are read.
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3 Common Layer 2 Technologies
• Ethernet : Uses CSMA/CD logical

bus topology (information flow is on
a linear bus) physical star or
extended star (wired as a star)
• Token Ring : logical ring topology
(information flow is controlled in a
ring) and a physical star topology (in
other words, it is wired as a star)
• FDDI : logical ring topology
(information flow is controlled in a
ring) and physical dual-ring
topology(wired as a dual-ring)

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Collision Domains
• To move data between one Ethernet station and another,

the data often passes through a repeater.
• All other stations in the same collision domain see traffic

that passes through a repeater.
• A collision domain is then a shared resource. Problems

originating in one part of the collision domain will usually
impact the entire collision domain.

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CSMA/CD Graphic

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Layer 3 : Router
Routers have all operational capabilities of the switch. Routers

can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and manage data
transfers. They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them
to connect LANs that are separated by great distances.

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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Host A
ARP Request - Broadcast to all hosts
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
„What is the hardware address for IP address 128.0.10.4?“
ARP Reply
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
Host B
IP Address: 128.0.10.4
HW Address: 080020021545

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1 Network = 1 Broadcast Domain
A B
Broadcast: ARP request
2 Networks = 2 Broadcast Domains
A B
Router
Broadcast: ARP request

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A
A
B
Router R
I take care, to forward

IP packets to B
Broadcast Message to all:

If your IP address matches “B” Yes, I know the destination
then please tell me your network, let me give you my
Ethernet address Ethernet address

67 - 67 -
December 10, 2019
RARP
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a

known MAC addresses with an IP addresses.
• A network device, such as a diskless workstation, might
know its MAC address but not its IP address. RARP allows
the device to make a request to learn its IP address.
• Devices using RARP require that a RARP server be
present on the network to answer RARP requests.

December 10, 2019 - 68 -
Layer 4 : TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented Layer 4

protocol that provides reliable full-duplex data transmission.
TCP is part of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In a connection-oriented

environment, a connection is established between both ends before the
transfer of information can begin.
TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments, reassembling
them at the destination station, resending anything that is not received,
and reassembling messages from the segments.TCP supplies a virtual
circuit between end-user applications.
The protocols that use TCP include:

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet
December 10, 2019 - 69 -
TCP/IP
• Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized,

the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack
make data communication possible between any two
computers

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TCP Segment Format

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IP Addressing
32 Bits in size
Made up of 4 octets

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IPv4
As early as 1992, the Internet

Engineering Task Force (IETF)
identified two specific concerns:
Exhaustion of the remaining,
unassigned IPv4 network
addresses and the increase in the
size of Internet routing tables.
Over the past two decades,

nuerous extensions to IPv4 have
been developed. Two of the more
important of these are subnet
masks and classless interdomain
routing (CIDR). Proprietary and Confidential
December 10, 2019 - 73 -
IP Address Classes
• IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and
small networks.
• Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks.
• Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks, &
• Class C for small networks.

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Identifying Address Classes

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Address Class Prefixes
To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these

networks, IP addresses are divided into groups called classes.This
is classful addressing.

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Network and Host Division
Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a
host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address determines the
class of the address. There are 5 IP address classes.

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Network and Host Addressing
Using the IP address of the

destination network, a router can
deliver a packet to the correct
network.
When the packet arrives at a

router connected to the
destination network, the router
uses the IP address to locate the
particular computer connected to
that network.
Accordingly, every IP address has
two parts.
December 10, 2019 - 78 -
Internet Addresses
IP Addressing is a hierarchical structure.An IP address combines

two identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique
number, because duplicate addresses would make routing
impossible.The first part identifies the system's network
address.The second part, called the host part, identifies which
particular machine it is on the network.

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Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than
16 million host addresses available. Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to
indicate the network address. The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.

December 10, 2019 - 80 -
Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-
sized networks. A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to
indicate the network address. The other two octets specify host addresses.

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Class C Addresses
The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address
classes. This address space was intended to support small networks with a
maximum of 254 hosts.

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Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A

multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that
destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single
station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of data to multiple
recipients.

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Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no
Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet.

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IP Address Ranges
The graphic below shows the IP address range of the first octet
both in decimal and binary for each IP address class.

December 10, 2019 - 85 -
Finding the Network Address with ANDing
By ANDing the Host address of 192.168.10.2 with 255.255.255.0 (its network

mask) we obtain the network address of 192.168.10.0

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Network Address

December 10, 2019 - 87 -
Broadcast Address

December 10, 2019 - 88 -
Network/Broadcast Addresses at the Binary Level
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is

reserved for the network address, which identifies the network.
An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the broadcast address, which is used to send data
to all hosts on the network. Here are some examples:
Class Network Address Broadcast Address
A 100.0.0.0 100.255.255.255
B 150.75.0.0 150.75.255.255
C 200.100.50.0 200.100.50.255
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Public IP Addresses
Unique addresses are required for each device on a network.
Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information

Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.
InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA).
No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP
address because public IP addresses are global and standardized.
All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.
Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider

(ISP) or a registry at some expense.

December 10, 2019 - 90 -
Private IP Addresses
• Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the

impending exhaustion of public IP addresses. As mentioned, public
networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses.
• However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet
may use any host addresses, as long as each host within the
private network is unique.

December 10, 2019 - 91 -
Mixing Public and Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses can be intermixed, as shown in the graphic, with public IP

addresses. This will conserve the number of addresses used for internal
connections. Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet
requires translation of the private addresses to public addresses. This
translation process is referred to as Network Address Translation (NAT).

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Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the

network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and
manageable segments, or subnets.
With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B,

or C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network
design.
Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field

and a host field.The ability to decide how to divide the original host
portion into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing
flexibility for the network administrator.

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The 32-Bit Binary IP Address

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Numbers That Show Up In Subnet Masks

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Addressing with Subnetworks

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Obtaining an Internet Address

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Static Assignment of an IP Address
Static assignment
works best on small
networks.
The administrator
manually assigns and
tracks IP addresses
for each computer,
printer, or server on
the intranet.
Network printers,
application servers,
and routers should be
assigned static IP
addresses.
December 10, 2019 - 98 -
Introduction to Routers
A router is a special type of computer. It has the same basic components as a
standard desktop PC. However, routers are designed to perform some very
specific functions. Just as computers need operating systems to run software
applications, routers need the Internetwork Operating System software (IOS)
to run configuration files. These configuration files contain the instructions
and parameters that control the flow of traffic in and out of the routers. The
many parts of a router are shown below:

December 10, 2019 - 99 -
RAM
• Random Access Memory, also called dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• RAM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Stores routing tables
• Holds ARP cache
• Holds fast-switching cache
• Performs packet buffering (shared RAM)
• Maintains packet-hold queues
• Provides temporary memory for the configuration file of the
router while the router is powered on
• Loses content when router is powered down or restarted

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NVRAM
Non-Volatile RAM
NVRAM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Provides storage for the startup configuration file

• Retains content when router is powered down or restarted

December 10, 2019 - 101 -
Flash
Flash memory has the following characteristics and functions:

• Holds the operating system image (IOS)
• Allows software to be updated without removing and
replacing chips on the processor
• Retains content when router is powered down or
restarted
• Can store multiple versions of IOS software
Is a type of electronically erasable, programmable ROM (EEPROM)

December 10, 2019 - 102 -
ROM
Read-Only Memory
ROM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Maintains instructions for power-on self test (POST)

diagnostics
• Stores bootstrap program and basic operating
system software
• Requires replacing pluggable chips on the motherboard
for software upgrades

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Router Command Line Interface

December 10, 2019 - 104 -
Setup Mode
Setup is not intended as the mode for entering complex protocol features in the router. The
purpose of the setup mode is to permit the administrator to install a minimal configuration for a
router, unable to locate a configuration from another source.
In the setup mode, default answers appear in square brackets [ ] following the question.
Press the Enter key to use these defaults.
During the setup process, Ctrl-C can be pressed at any time to terminate the process. When
setup is terminated using Ctrl-C, all interfaces will be administratively shutdown.
When the configuration process is completed in setup mode, the following options will be
displayed:
[0] Go to the IOS command prompt without saving this config.

[1] Return back to the setup without saving this config.
[2] Save this configuration to nvram and exit.
Enter your selection [2]:

December 10, 2019 - 105 -
Operation of Cisco IOS Software
The Cisco IOS devices have three distinct operating environments or
modes:
• ROM monitor
• Boot ROM
• Cisco IOS
The startup process of the router normally loads into RAM and executes
one of these operating environments. The configuration register setting can
be used by the system administrator to control the default start up mode for
the router.
To see the IOS image and version that is running, use the show version
command, which also indicates the configuration register setting.

December 10, 2019 - 106 -
IOS File System Overview

December 10, 2019 - 107 -
Initial Startup of Cisco Routers
A router initializes by loading the bootstrap, the operating system, and a
configuration file.
If the router cannot find a configuration file, it enters setup mode.
Upon completion of the setup mode a backup copy of the configuration file
may be saved to nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM).
The goal of the startup routines for Cisco IOS software is to start the router
operations. To do this, the startup routines must accomplish the following:
• Make sure that the router hardware is tested and functional.
• Find and load the Cisco IOS software.
• Find and apply the startup configuration file or enter the setup
mode.
When a Cisco router powers up, it performs a power-on self test (POST).
During this self test, the router executes diagnostics from ROM on all
hardware modules.
December 10, 2019 - 108 -
After the Post…
After the POST, the following events occur as the router initializes:
Step 1
The generic bootstrap loader in ROM executes. A bootstrap is a simple set of instructions that
tests hardware and initializes the IOS for operation.
Step 2
The IOS can be found in several places. The boot field of the configuration register determines
the location to be used in loading the IOS. If the boot field indicates a flash or network load,
boot system commands in the configuration file indicate the exact name and location of the
image.
Step 3
The operating system image is loaded.
Step 4
The configuration file saved in NVRAM is loaded into main memory and executed one line at a
time. The configuration commands start routing processes, supply addresses for interfaces,
and define other operating characteristics of the router.
Step 5
If no valid configuration file exists in NVRAM, the operating system searches for an available
TFTP server. If no TFTP server is found, the setup dialog is initiated.

December 10, 2019 - 109 -
Step in Router Initialization

December 10, 2019 - 110 -
Router LED Indicators
Cisco routers use LED indicators to provide status information.
Depending upon the Cisco router model, the LED indicators will
vary. An interface LED indicates the activity of the corresponding
interface. If an LED is off when the interface is active and the
interface is correctly connected, a problem may be indicated. If an
interface is extremely busy, its LED will always be on. The green OK
LED to the right of the AUX port will be on after the system initializes
correctly.

December 10, 2019 - 111 -
Enhanced Cisco IOS Commands

December 10, 2019 - 112 -
The show version Command
The show version command displays information about the Cisco IOS
software version that is currently running on the router. This includes the
configuration register and the boot field settings.
The following information is available from the show version command:

IOS version and descriptive information
• Bootstrap ROM version
• Boot ROM version
• Router up time
• Last restart method
• System image file and location
• Router platform
• Configuration register setting
Use the show version command to identify router IOS image and boot
source. To find out the amount of flash memory, issue the show flash
command.
December 10, 2019 - 113 -
Router Configuration

December 10, 2019 - 114 -
Router User Interface Modes
The Cisco command-line interface (CLI) uses a hierarchical structure. This

structure requires entry into different modes to accomplish particular tasks.
Each configuration mode is indicated with a distinctive prompt and allows

only commands that are appropriate for that mode.
As a security feature the Cisco IOS software separates sessions into two
access levels, user EXEC mode and privileged EXEC mode. The privileged
EXEC mode is also known as enable mode.

December 10, 2019 - 115 -
Overview of Router Modes

December 10, 2019 - 116 -
Router Modes

December 10, 2019 - 117 -
User Mode Commands

December 10, 2019 - 118 -
Privileged Mode Commands

December 10, 2019 - 119 -
Specific Configuration Modes

December 10, 2019 - 120 -
CLI Command Modes
All command-line interface (CLI) configuration changes to a Cisco router
are made from the global configuration mode. Other more specific modes
are entered depending upon the configuration change that is required.
Global configuration mode commands are used in a router to apply

configuration statements that affect the system as a whole.
The following command moves the router into global configuration mode
Router#configure terminal (or config t)

Router(config)#
When specific configuration modes are entered, the router prompt changes
to indicate the current configuration mode.
Typing exit from one of these specific configuration modes will return the
router to global configuration mode. Pressing Ctrl-Z returns the router to all
the way back privileged EXEC mode.
December 10, 2019 - 121 -
Configuration of a Router
Router for the first time is configured through the CONSOLE

port.COM port of a PC is connected to the console port of router
with a console cable by using a transceiver. Router is accessible by
a tool. In windows, it is called HYPER TEMINAL. As soon as the
router is powered on and accessed, the following things happen,
POST
BOOT STRAP
FLASH ROM (mini IOS)

If IOS is Corrupted
NVRAM
Setup Mode
December 10, 2019 - 122 -
In Setup mode, there will be a message,
“Would You Like To Enter The Initial Configuration [Y/N]”
:
If “Y” then, initial configuration starts.
If “N” would you like to terminate the auto installation?
Press “RETURN” to get started……You will land on the
default prompt of the Router “ ROUTER >”.

December 10, 2019 - 123 -
Configuring a Router’s Name
A router should be given a unique name as one of the

first configuration tasks.
This task is accomplished in global configuration

mode using the following commands:
Router(config)#hostname Tokyo
Tokyo(config)#
As soon as the Enter key is pressed, the prompt

changes from the default host name (Router) to the
newly configured host name (which is Tokyo in the
example above). Proprietary and Confidential
December 10, 2019 - 124 -
Setting the Clock with
Setting
the Clock
with Help
125
December 10, 2019 - 125 -
Message Of The Day (MOTD)
A message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner can be displayed on all

connected terminals.
Enter global configuration mode by using the command config t
Enter the command

banner motd # The message of the day goes here #.
Save changes by issuing the command copy run start

December 10, 2019 - 126 -
CONFIGURING INTERFACES
•LAN interface (ETHERNET Port)
•WAN interface (SERIAL Port)

December 10, 2019 - 127 -
ETHERNET
Router(config)#Interface Ethernet 0
Router(config-if)#Ip Address 200.150.1.254 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#^Z
Router#Show Int E0

December 10, 2019 - 128 -
SERIAL
Router(config)#Interface Serial 0
Router(config-if)#Ip Address 150.10.1.1 255.255.0.0
Router(config)#clock rate 56000
Router(Config-if)# bandwidth 64
Router(config-if)#No shutdown
Router(config-if)#^Z

December 10, 2019 - 129 -
Examining the show Commands
There are many show commands that can be used to examine the contents of files
in the router and for troubleshooting. In both privileged EXEC and user EXEC
modes, the command show ? provides a list of available show commands. The list
is considerably longer in privileged EXEC mode than it is in user EXEC mode.
show interfaces – Displays all the statistics for all the interfaces on the router.
show int s0/1 – Displays statistics for interface Serial 0/1
show controllers serial – Displays information-specific to the interface hardware
show clock – Shows the time set in the router
show hosts – Displays a cached list of host names and addresses
show users – Displays all users who are connected to the router
show history – Displays a history of commands that have been entered
show flash – Displays info about flash memory and what IOS files are stored there
show version – Displays info about the router and the IOS that is running in RAM
show ARP – Displays the ARP table of the router
show start – Displays the saved configuration located in NVRAM
show run – Displays the configuration currently running in RAM
show protocol – Displays the global and interface specific status of any configured
Layer 3 protocols

December 10, 2019 - 130 -
The copy run tftp Command

December 10, 2019 - 131 -
Router Password Configuration
• Previlege Password
• Virtual Terminal Password
• Console Password
• Auxillary Password

December 10, 2019 - 132 -
Previlege PASSWORDS
Enable Password Enable Secret
Enable Password:- It is global command restricts access to

the previlege mode, the password is in clear text.
Router(config)#Enable password 123
Enable Secret:-Here the password is in encrypted form.
Router(config)#Enable secret cisco

December 10, 2019 - 133 -
Virtual Terminal Password
It establishes a login password on incoming Telnet

sessions.
Router#conf t
Router(config)#Line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#Login
Router(config-line)#password cisco
Router(config-line)#^Z

December 10, 2019 - 134 -
Console Password
It establishes a login password on the console terminal.
Router#conf t
Router(config)#Line Console 0
Router(config-line)#Password cisco

December 10, 2019 - 135 -
Auxillary Password
It establishes a login password to remote administration.
Router#conf t
Router(config)#Line Aux 0
Router(config-line)#Password cisco

December 10, 2019 - 136 -
The “CDP”
It’s a Cisco's proprietary protocol called the Cisco Discovery

Protocol, that gives you a summary of all the directly connected
Cisco devices. CDP is a L2 protocol, that discovers neighbor
regardless of which protocol suite they are running. When a cisco
device boots up, the CDP is loaded by default, but can be disabled
at interface level.
* The CDP is limited to the immediate neighbors only…
The summary includes Device Identifier(eg. Switch configured
name or domain name), Port Identifier (eg. Ethernet 0 and serial 0.),
Capabilities list (eg. The device can act as a source route bridge as
well as a router), Platform (eg. Cisco 2600).

December 10, 2019 - 137 -
CDP (Cisco’s Discovery Protocol)

December 10, 2019 - 138 -
Using CDP
Router# sh cdp neighbor (shows neighboring devices)
Router# sh cdp entry 192.168.10.1 (shows detailed information about this

perticular neighbor.)
Router# sh cdp interface(shows the details of the interface of the local decive.)
Router# sh cdp traffic (shows the packet sent, received, lost etc.)
To disable CDP….,
Router(config)#no cdp run

Router(config)#int s0
Router(config-if)#no cdp enable
December 10, 2019 - 139 -
Upgrading IOS Image
Note: This process can only be done by Console Session.
Router#Copy tftp Flash:

Address or name of remote host []?
Source file name []?
Destination file name []?

Erase Flash: before copying [confirm]?
Erasing the Flash file system will remove all files: continue? [confirm]
Erasing device

December 10, 2019 - 140 -
Intermediate Level Networking
1. Switching
2. Routing

December 10, 2019 - 141 -
VLANs
• VLAN implementation combines Layer 2 switching and Layer 3 routing

technologies to limit both collision domains and broadcast domains.
• VLANs can also be used to provide security by creating the VLAN groups
according to function and by using routers to communicate between
VLANs.
• A physical port association is used to implement VLAN assignment.
• Communication between VLANs can occur only through the router.
• This limits the size of the broadcast domains and uses the router to
determine whether one VLAN can talk to another VLAN.
• NOTE: This is the only way a switch can break up a broadcast domain!

December 10, 2019 - 142 -
Setting up VLAN Implementation

December 10, 2019 - 143 -
VLAN Communication

December 10, 2019 - 144 -
VLAN Membership Modes
• VLAN membership can either be static or dynamic.

December 10, 2019 - 145 -
Static VLANs
• All users attached to same switch port must be in the same

VLAN.
December 10, 2019 - 146 -
Configuring VLANs in Global Mode
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vlan 3
Switch(config-vlan)#name
Vlan3
Switch(config-vlan)#exit
Switch(config)#end

December 10, 2019 - 147 -
Configuring VLANs in VLAN Database
Mode
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan 3
VLAN 3 added:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....

December 10, 2019 - 148 -
Deleting VLANs in Global Mode
Switch(config)#no vlan 3
Switch(config)#end

December 10, 2019 - 149 -
Deleting VLANs in VLAN Database Mode
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#no vlan 3
VLAN 3 deleted:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....

December 10, 2019 - 150 -
Assigning Access Ports to a VLAN
Switch(config)#interface gigabitethernet 1/1

• Enters interface configuration mode
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

• Configures the interface as an access port
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3

• Assigns the access port to a VLAN

December 10, 2019 - 151 -
Verifying the VLAN Configuration
Switch#show vlan [id | name] [vlan_num | vlan_name]

VLAN Name Status Ports
---- -------------------------------- --------- -------------------------------
1 default active Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/5, Fa0/7
Fa0/8, Fa0/9, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Gi0/1, Gi0/2
2 VLAN0002 active
51 VLAN0051 active
52 VLAN0052 active
…
VLAN Type SAID MTU Parent RingNo BridgeNo Stp BrdgMode Trans1 Trans2
---- ----- ---------- ----- ------ ------ -------- ---- -------- ------ ------
1 enet 100001 1500 - - - - - 1002 1003
2 enet 100002 1500 - - - - - 0 0
51 enet 100051 1500 - - - - - 0 0
52 enet 100052 1500 - - - - - 0 0
…
Remote SPAN VLANs

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary Secondary Type Ports
------- --------- ----------------- ------------------------------------------

December 10, 2019 - 152 -
Verifying the VLAN Port Configuration
Switch#show running-config interface {fastethernet |

gigabitethernet} slot/port
• Displays the running configuration of the interface
Switch#show interfaces [{fastethernet | gigabitethernet}

slot/port] switchport
• Displays the switch port configuration of the interface
Switch#show mac-address-table interface interface-id [vlan vlan-

id] [ | {begin | exclude | include} expression]
• Displays the MAC address table information for the specified interface in the specified VLAN

December 10, 2019 - 153 -
Implementing VLAN Trunks
..

December 10, 2019 - 154 -
VLAN Trunking

December 10, 2019 - 155 -
ISL Encapsulation
•Performed with ASIC

•Not intrusive to client
stations; client does
not see the header
•Effective between
switches, and between
routers and switches

December 10, 2019 - 156 -
Configuring ISL Trunking
Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 2/1
• Enters interface configuration mode
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
• Configures the interface as a Layer 2 trunk
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation [isl|dot1q]
• Selects the encapsulation

December 10, 2019 - 157 -
Verifying ISL Trunking

Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]

slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]
Switch#show interfaces fastethernet 2/1 trunk
Port Mode Encapsulation Status Native VLAN

Fa2/1 desirable isl trunking 1
Port VLANs allowed on trunk

Fa2/1 1-1005
Port VLANs allowed and active in management domain

Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005
Port VLANs in spanning tree forwarding state and not pruned

Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005

December 10, 2019 - 158 -
802.1Q Trunking

December 10, 2019 - 159 -
Configuring 802.1Q Trunking
Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 5/8

Switch(config-if)#shutdown
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan
1,15,11,1002-1005
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
Switch(config-if)#switchport nonegotiate
Switch(config-if)#no shutdown

December 10, 2019 - 160 -
Verifying 802.1Q Trunking

Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]

slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]
Switch#show interfaces gigabitEthernet 0/1 switchport

Name: Gi0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
. . .

December 10, 2019 - 161 -
VTP Protocol Features
• Advertises VLAN configuration information

• Maintains VLAN configuration consistency throughout a
common administrative domain
• Sends advertisements on trunk ports only

December 10, 2019 - 162 -
VTP Modes
• Creates, modifies, and deletes

VLANs
• Sends and forwards
advertisements
• Synchronizes VLAN
configurations
• Saves configuration in NVRAM
• Cannot create,
change, or delete • Creates, modifies, and
VLANs deletes VLANs locally
• Forwards only
advertisements • Forwards
• Synchronizes advertisements
VLAN • Does not
configurations synchronize VLAN
• Does not save in configurations
NVRAM • Saves configuration in
NVRAM
December 10, 2019 - 163 -
VTP Operation
• VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.

• VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest update identified
– revision number.
• VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a
change.

December 10, 2019 - 164 -
VTP Pruning
• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic

• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only
toward any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN.

December 10, 2019 - 165 -
VTP Configuration Guidelines
• Configure the following:
• VTP domain name
• VTP mode (server mode is the default)
• VTP pruning
• VTP password
• Be cautious when adding a new switch into an existing domain.
• Add a new switch in a Client mode to get the last up-to-date information from
the network then convert it to Server mode.
• Add all new configurations to switch in transparent mode and check your
configuration well then convert it to Server mode to prevent the switch from
propagating incorrect VLAN information.

December 10, 2019 - 166 -
Configuring a VTP Server
Switch(config)#vtp server
• Configures VTP server mode
Switch(config)#vtp domain domain-name

• Specifies a domain name
Switch(config)#vtp password password

• Sets a VTP password
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
• Enables VTP pruning in the domain

December 10, 2019 - 167 -
Configuring a VTP Server (Cont.)
Switch(config)#vtp server
Setting device to VTP SERVER mode.

Switch(config)#vtp domain Lab_Network
Setting VTP domain name to Lab_Network

Switch(config)#end

December 10, 2019 - 168 -
Verifying the VTP Configuration
Switch#show vtp status
Switch#show vtp status
VTP Version : 2
Configuration Revision : 247
Maximum VLANs supported locally : 1005
Number of existing VLANs : 33
VTP Operating Mode : Client
VTP Domain Name : Lab_Network
VTP Pruning Mode : Enabled
VTP V2 Mode : Disabled
VTP Traps Generation : Disabled
MD5 digest : 0x45 0x52 0xB6 0xFD 0x63 0xC8 0x49 0x80
Configuration last modified by 0.0.0.0 at 8-12-99 15:04:49
Switch#
169
December 10, 2019 - 169 -
Verifying the VTP Configuration (Cont.)
Switch#show vtp counters
Switch#show vtp counters
VTP statistics:
Summary advertisements received : 7
Subset advertisements received : 5
Request advertisements received : 0
Summary advertisements transmitted : 997
Subset advertisements transmitted : 13
Request advertisements transmitted : 3
Number of config revision errors : 0
Number of config digest errors : 0
Number of V1 summary errors : 0
VTP pruning statistics:

Trunk Join Transmitted Join Received Summary advts received from
non-pruning-capable device
---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------------------
Fa5/8 43071 42766 5
170
December 10, 2019 - 170 -
Classful Addressing
• Classful routing protocols do not carry subnet mask

information on their routing updates. This makes them
unsuitable for hierarchical addressing that require Variable
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) and discontiguous network.
• To accommodate different size networks and aid in
classifying these networks, IP addresses are divided into
groups called classes. This is classful addressing.

December 10, 2019 - 171 -
Classless Addressing
• Classless routing protocols do carry subnet mask information

on their routing updates.
• Classless routing protocols extend the standard Class A, B, or

C IP addressing scheme by using a subnet mask or mask
length to indicate how routers must interpret an IP network ID.

December 10, 2019 - 172 -
Classless Interdomain Routing
• CIDR is a mechanism developed to alleviate exhaustion of

addresses and reduce routing table size.
• Block addresses can be summarized into single entries without
regard to the classful boundary of the network number.
• Summarized blocks are installed in routing tables.

December 10, 2019 - 173 -
What Is CIDR?
• Addresses are the same as in the route summarization figure, except that
Class B network 172 has been replaced by Class C network 192.
December 10, 2019 - 174 -
CIDR Example

December 10, 2019 - 175 -
What is VLSM?
• A Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is a means of allocating IP
addressing resources to subnets according to their individual need
rather than some general network-wide rule.
• VLSM allows an organization to use more than one subnet mask
within the same network address space. It is often referred to as
‘subnetting a subnet’, and can be used to maximize addressing
efficiency.
• Large subnets are created for addressing LANs and small subnets
are created for WAN links (a 30 bit mask is used to create subnets
with only two host).

December 10, 2019 - 176 -
Subnetting vs. VLSM
• Subnetting allows you to divide big networks into smaller,

equal-sized slices.
• VLSM allows you to divide big networks into smaller, different-

sized slices. This enables you to make maximum use of your
valuable IP address space.

December 10, 2019 - 177 -
Implementing VLSM

December 10, 2019 - 178 -
Range Of Addresses for VLSM

December 10, 2019 - 179 -
Breakdown Address Space for
Largest Subnet

December 10, 2019 - 180 -
Breakdown Address Space for Ethernets at Remote Sites

December 10, 2019 - 181 -
Break Down Remaining Address
Space for Serial Subnets

December 10, 2019 - 182 -
Calculating VLSM: Binary

December 10, 2019 - 183 -
NAT
Network Address Translator

December 10, 2019 - 184 -
Address shortage and possible solutions
New addressing concepts
Problems with IPv4

Shortage of IPv4 addresses
Allocation of the last IPv4 addresses is forecasted for the year 2005
Address classes were replaced by usage of CIDR, but this is not sufficient
Short term solution

NAT: Network Address Translator
Long term solution

IPv6 = IPng (IP next generation)
Provides an extended address range

December 10, 2019 - 185 -
How does NAT work?
NAT: Network Address Translator
NAT
Translates between local addresses and public ones
Many private hosts share few global addresses
Private Network Public Network

Uses private address range Uses public addresses
(local addresses)
Local addresses may not Public addresses are
be used externally globally unique
December 10, 2019 - 186 -
Translation mechanism
realm with realm with

private addresses public addresses
translate reserve
To be pool
translated
map
NAT
exclude exclude
NAT Router
December 10, 2019 - 187 -
How does NAT know when to return the
public IP address to the pool?
free
NAT
Pool
A timeout value (default 15 min) instructs NAT

how long to keep an association in an idle state before
returning the external IP address to the free NAT pool.
December 10, 2019 - 188 -
NAT Addressing Terms
• Inside Local
• The term “inside” refers to an address used for a host inside an enterprise.
It is the actual IP address assigned to a host in the private enterprise
network.
• Inside Global
• NAT uses an inside global address to represent the inside host as the
packet is sent through the outside network, typically the Internet.
• A NAT router changes the source IP address of a packet sent by an inside
host from an inside local address to an inside global address as the packet
goes from the inside to the outside network.

December 10, 2019 - 189 -
NAT Addressing Terms
• Outside Global
– The term “outside” refers to an address used for a host outside an
enterprise, the Internet. An outside global is the actual IP address assigned
to a host that resides in the outside network, typically the Internet.
• Outside Local
– NAT uses an outside local address to represent the outside host as the
packet is sent through the private enterprise network.
– A NAT router changes a packet’s destination IP address, sent from an
outside global address to an inside host, as the packet goes from the outside
to the inside network.

December 10, 2019 - 190 -
Types Of NAT
There are different types of NAT that can be used, which are
• Static NAT
• Dynamic NAT
• Overloading NAT with PAT (NAPT)

December 10, 2019 - 191 -
Static NAT
With static NAT, the NAT router simply

configures a one-to-one mapping between
the private address and the registered
address that is used on its behalf.

December 10, 2019 - 192 -
Static NAT

December 10, 2019 - 193 -
Static NAT Configuration
• To form NAT table
Router(config)#IP Nat inside source static [inside local

source IP address] [inside global source IP address]
• Assign NAT to an Interface
Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]

Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]

December 10, 2019 - 194 -
Dynamic NAT
• Like static NAT, the NAT router creates a one-to-one mapping

between an inside local and inside global address and changes
the IP addresses in packets as they exit and enter the inside
network.
• However, the mapping of an inside local address to an inside

global address happens dynamically.

December 10, 2019 - 195 -
Dynamic NAT
• Dynamic NAT sets up a pool of possible inside global addresses
and defines criteria for the set of inside local IP addresses whose
traffic should be translated with NAT.
• The dynamic entry in the NAT table stays in there as long as traffic
flows occasionally.
• If a new packet arrives, and it needs a NAT entry, but all the pooled
IP addresses are in use, the router simply discards the packet.

December 10, 2019 - 196 -
Dynamic NAT Configuration
• Specify inside addresses to be translated
Router(config)#IP Nat inside source list [standard Access List

number] pool [NAT Pool Name]
• Specify NAT pool
Router(config)#IP Nat pool [NAT Pool Name] [First inside global

address] [Last inside global address] netmask [subnet mask]
• Assign NAT to an Interface


December 10, 2019 - 197 -
PAT
Port Address Translator

December 10, 2019 - 198 -
PAT with e.g. a single public IP address
single public
IP address
private IP network
WAN
(e.g. SOHO)
pool of TU port numbers
local IP @,
registered IP @,
local TU port # mapping
assigned TU port #
199
TU....TCP/UDP
December 10, 2019 Fig. 10 NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts,- 199
19)-
PAT Configuration
• Specify inside addresses to be translated
Router(config)#IP Nat inside source list [standard Access

List number] pool [NAT Pool Name] overload
• Specify PAT pool
Router(config)#IP Nat pool [NAT Pool Name] [First inside

global address] [Last inside global address] netmask
[subnet mask]
• Assign PAT to an Interface


December 10, 2019 - 200 -
STP

December 10, 2019 - 201 -
Overview
Redundancy in a network is extremely important because

redundancy allows networks to be fault tolerant.
Redundant topologies based on switches and bridges are

susceptible to broadcast storms, multiple frame
transmissions, and MAC address database instability.
Therefore network redundancy requires careful planning

and monitoring to function properly.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol is used in switched networks

to create a loop free logical topology from a physical
topology that has loops.
December 10, 2019 - 202 -
Redundant Switched Topologies
Networks with redundant paths and devices allow for more network uptime.
In the graphic, if Switch A fails, traffic can still flow from Segment 2 to Segment 1 and to
the router through Switch B. If port 1 fails on Switch A then traffic can still flow through
port 1 on Switch B.
Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices on their ports so that data can be
properly forwarded to the destination. Switches will flood frames for unknown
destinations until they learn the MAC addresses of the devices.
A redundant switched topology may cause broadcast storms, multiple frame copies,
and MAC address table instability problems.

December 10, 2019 - 203 -
Broadcast Storms
Broadcasts and multicasts can cause problems in a switched network.
Multicasts are treated as broadcasts by the switches.
Broadcasts and multicasts frames are flooded out all ports, except the one on
which the frame was received.
The switches continue to propagate broadcast traffic over and over. This is
called a broadcast storm. This will continue until one of the switches is
disconnected. The network will appear to be down or extremely slow.

December 10, 2019 - 204 -
Multiple Frame Transmissions
In a redundant switched network it is possible for an end device to receive
multiple frames. Assume that the MAC address of Router Y has been timed
out by both switches. Also assume that Host X still has the MAC address of
Router Y in its ARP cache and sends a unicast frame to Router Y. The router
receives the frame because it is on the same segment as Host X. Switch A
does not have the MAC address of the Router Y and will therefore flood the
frame out its ports. Switch B also does not know which port Router Y is on.
Switch B then floods the frame it received causing Router Y to receive
multiple copies of the same frame. This is a cause of unnecessary processing
in all devices.

December 10, 2019 - 205 -
MAC Database Instability
A switch can incorrectly learn that a MAC address is on one port, when it is
actually on a different port. In this example the MAC address of Router Y is
not in the MAC address table of either switch. Host X sends a frame directed
to Router Y. Switches A & B learn the MAC address of Host X on port 0. The
frame to Router Y is flooded on port 1 of both switches. Switches A and B see
this information on port 1 and incorrectly learn the MAC address of Host X on
port 1. When Router Y sends a frame to Host X, Switch A and Switch B will
also receive the frame and will send it out port 1. This is unnecessary, but the
switches have incorrectly learned that Host X is on port 1.

December 10, 2019 - 206 -
Using Bridging Loops for Redundancy
207
December 10, 2019 - 207 -
Logical Loop Free Topology Created with STP

December 10, 2019 - 208 -
Spanning Tree Protocol - 1
Ethernet bridges
and switches can
implement the IEEE
802.1D Spanning-
Tree Protocol and
use the spanning-
tree algorithm to
construct a loop
free shortest path
network.
Shortest path is
based on
cumulative link
costs.
Link costs are
based on the speed
of the link.

December 10, 2019 - 209 -
Spanning Tree Protocol - 2
The Spanning-Tree Protocol

establishes a root node, called the root
bridge/switch.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol constructs

a topology that has one path for
reaching every network node. The
resulting tree originates from the root
bridge/switch.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol requires

network devices to exchange
messages to detect bridging loops.
Links that will cause a loop are put into
a blocking state.
The message that a switch sends,

allowing the formation of a loop free
logical topology, is called a Bridge
Protocol Data Unit (BPDU).
December 10, 2019 - 210 -
Selecting the Root Bridge
The first decision that all switches in the network make, is to identify
the root bridge. The position of the root bridge in a network will affect
the traffic flow.
When a switch is turned on, the spanning-tree algorithm is used to

identify the root bridge. BPDUs are sent out with the Bridge ID (BID).
The BID consists of a bridge priority that defaults to 32768 and the
switch base MAC address.
When a switch first starts up, it assumes it is the root switch and
sends BPDUs. These BPDUs contain the switch MAC address in both
the root and sender BID. As a switch receives a BPDU with a lower
root BID it replaces that in the BPDUs that are sent out. All bridges
see these and decide that the bridge with the smallest BID value will
be the root bridge.
A network administrator may want to influence the decision by setting

the switch priority to a smaller value than the default.
December 10, 2019 - 211 -
BDPUs
BPDUs contain enough information so that all switches can do

the following:
• Select a single switch that will act as the root of the
spanning tree
• Calculate the shortest path from itself to the root switch
• Designate one of the switches as the closest one to the
root, for each LAN segment. This bridge is called the
“designated switch”. The designated switch handles all
communication from that LAN towards the root bridge.
• Each non-root switch choose one of its ports as its root
port, this is the interface that gives the best path to the
root switch.
• Select ports that are part of the spanning tree, the
designated ports. Non-designated ports are blocked.

December 10, 2019 - 212 -
Spanning Tree Operation
When the network has stabilized, it has converged and
there is one spanning tree per network. As a result, for
every switched network the following elements exist:
• One root bridge per network
• One root port per non root bridge
• One designated port per segment
• Unused, non-designated ports
Root ports and designated ports are used for forwarding
(F) data traffic.
Non-designated ports discard data traffic.
Non-designated ports are called blocking (B) or discarding
ports.

December 10, 2019 - 213 -
Spanning Tree Port States

December 10, 2019 - 214 -
Spanning Tree Recalculation
A switched internetwork has converged when all the switch and

bridge ports are in either the forwarding or blocked state.
Forwarding ports send and receive data traffic and BPDUs.
Blocked ports will only receive BPDUs.
When the network topology changes, switches and bridges

recompute the Spanning Tree and cause a disruption of user
traffic.
Convergence on a new spanning-tree topology using the IEEE

802.1D standard can take up to 50 seconds.
This convergence is made up of the max-age of 20 seconds, plus

the listening forward delay of 15 seconds, and the learning forward
delay of 15 seconds.
December 10, 2019 - 215 -
RSTP 802.1w
• Upgrade to STP.
• Its over comes the disadvantage of the slow convergence of

STP.
RSTP converges in 3 × Hello times (default: 3 times 2 seconds) or

within a few milliseconds of a physical link failure

December 10, 2019 - 216 -
Rapid STP Designations

December 10, 2019 - 217 -
Introduction to Routing

December 10, 2019 - 218 -
Anatomy of an IP Packet
IP packets consist of the data from upper layers plus an IP header.

The IP header consists of the following:

December 10, 2019 - 219 -
Introducing Routing
Routing is the process that a router uses to forward packets

toward the destination network. A router makes decisions
based upon the destination IP address of a packet. All devices
along the way use the destination IP address to point the
packet in the correct direction so that the packet eventually
arrives at its destination. In order to make the correct
decisions, routers must learn the direction to remote networks.

December 10, 2019 - 220 -
Configuring Static Routes by Specifying
Outgoing Interfaces

December 10, 2019 - 221 -
Configuring Static Routes by Specifying
Next-Hop Addresses

December 10, 2019 - 222 -
Configuring Default Routes
Default routes are used to route packets with destinations that do

not match any of the other routes in the routing table.
A default route is actually a special static route that uses this format:
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [next-hop-address | outgoing interface]
This is sometimes referred to as a “Quad-Zero” route.
Example using next hop address:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.4.1
Example using the exit interface:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0

December 10, 2019 - 223 -
Verifying Static Route Configuration
• After static routes are configured it is important to verify that they

are present in the routing table and that routing is working as
expected.
• The command show running-config is used to view the active

configuration in RAM to verify that the static route was entered
correctly.
• The show ip route command is used to make sure that the static
route is present in the routing table.

December 10, 2019 - 224 -
Trouble Shooting Static Route Configuration

December 10, 2019 - 225 -
Path Determination Graphic

December 10, 2019 - 226 -
Routing Protocol
Router
Switch
Router Router
Router
Router
Switch What is
an optimal
route ?

December 10, 2019 - 227 -
Routing Protocols
Routing protocols
includes the following:
processes for sharing

route information allows
routers to communicate
with other routers to
update and maintain the
routing tables
Examples of routing
protocols that support
the IP routed protocol
are:
RIP, IGRP,
OSPF, BGP,
and EIGRP.

December 10, 2019 - 228 -
Routing Protocols

December 10, 2019 - 229 -
Routed Protocols
Protocols used at the network layer that transfer data from one
host to another across a router are called routed or routable
protocols. The Internet Protocol (IP) and Novell's Internetwork
Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of routed protocols.
Routers use routing protocols to exchange routing tables and
share routing information. In other words, routing protocols
enable routers to route routed protocols.

December 10, 2019 - 230 -
Administrative Distance
The administrative distance is an optional parameter that gives a measure

of the reliability of the route. The range of an AD is 0-255 where smaller
numbers are more desireable.
The default administrative distance when using next-hop address is 1,

while the default administrative distance when using the outgoing interface
is 0. You can statically assign an AD as follows:
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.3.0

255.255.255.0 172.16.4.1 130
Sometimes static routes are used for backup purposes. A static route can
be configured on a router that will only be used when the dynamically
learned route has failed. To use a static route in this manner, simply set the
administrative distance higher than that of the dynamic routing protocol
being used.
December 10, 2019 - 231 -
Routed Protocols
232
December 10, 2019 - 232 -
IGP and EGP
An Autonomous System (AS) is a group of IP networks, which

Autonomous has a single and clearly defined external routing policy.
System
EGP
Exterior Gateway
Protocols are used
for routing between
Autonomous Systems
AS 1000 AS 3000
IGP
Interior Gateway Protocols are
used for routing decisions
AS 2000 within an Autonomous System.

December 10, 2019 - 233 -
The use of IGP and EGP protocols
Interior Gateway ProtocolExterior Gateway

Interior Gateway Protocol
(IGP) Protocol (EGP) (IGP)
AS 1000 AS 3000
EGP
EGP IGP
EGP
AS 2000
December 10, 2019 - 234 -
IGP and EGP
An autonomous system is a network or set of networks under common

administrative control, such as the cisco.com domain.

December 10, 2019 - 235 -
Categories of Routing Protocols
• Most routing algorithms can be classified into one of two

categories:
• distance vector
• link-state
• The distance vector routing approach determines the direction
(vector) and distance to any link in the internetwork.
• The link-state approach, also called shortest path first, recreates
the exact topology of the entire internetwork.

December 10, 2019 - 236 -
Distance Vector Routing Concepts

December 10, 2019 - 237 -
Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Destination Distance Routing table contains the addresses

of destinations and the distance
192.16.1.0 1 of the way to this destination.
192.16.5.0 1
192.16.7.0 2
2 Hops
1 Hop 1 Hop
Router A Router B Router C Router D
192.16.1.0 Flow of routing 192.16.7.0

information
192.16.5.0

December 10, 2019 - 238 -
Routing Tables Graphic

December 10, 2019 - 239 -
Distance Vector Topology Changes

December 10, 2019 - 240 -
Router Metric Components

December 10, 2019 - 241 -
Properties of RIPv1
Distance Vector Routing Protocol,
classful
Distribution of Routing Tables via broadcast

to adjacent routers
Only one kind of metric:

Number of Hops
Connections with different

bandwidth can not be weighted
Routing loops can occur

-> bad convergence in case of a failure
Count to infinity problem

(infinity = 16)
Maximum network size is limited

by the number of hops 242
December 10, 2019 - 242 -
RIP Characteristics

December 10, 2019 - 243 -
RIP-1 permits only a Single Subnet Mask
Port 1
130.24.13.1/24
130.24.13.0/24
RIP-1: 130.24.36.0 RIP-1: 130.24.36.0
130.24.25.0/24 Router A
RIP-1: 130.24.0.0
Port 2 200.14.13.0/24
130.24.36.0/24 200.14.13.2/24

December 10, 2019 - 244 -
RIP Configuration
The router command starts a routing process.
The network command is required because it enables the

routing process to determine which interfaces participate in the
sending and receiving of routing updates.
An example of a routing configuration is:
GAD(config)#router rip
GAD(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0
The network numbers are based on the network class

addresses, not subnet addresses or individual host addresses.
December 10, 2019 - 245 -
Configuring RIP Example

December 10, 2019 - 246 -
Verifying RIP Configuration

December 10, 2019 - 247 -
Routing loops
can occur Problem: Routing Loops
when
inconsistent
routing tables
are not
updated due
to slow
convergence
in a changing
network.
248
December 10, 2019 - 248 -
Problem: Counting to Infinity

December 10, 2019 - 249 -
Solution: Define a Maximum

December 10, 2019 - 250 -
Solution: Split Horizon

December 10, 2019 - 251 -
Route Poisoning
Route poisoning is used by various distance vector protocols in order to

overcome large routing loops and offer explicit information when a subnet
or network is not accessible. This is usually accomplished by setting the
hop count to one more than the maximum.
252
December 10, 2019 - 252 -
Triggered Updates
New routing tables are sent to neighboring routers on a regular basis.
For example, RIP updates occur every 30 seconds.
However a triggered update is sent immediately in response to some

change in the routing table.
The router that detects a topology change immediately sends an update

message to adjacent routers that, in turn, generate triggered updates
notifying their adjacent neighbors of the change.
When a route fails, an update is sent immediately rather than waiting on the
update timer to expire.
Triggered updates, used in conjunction with route poisoning, ensure that all
routers know of failed routes before any holddown timers can expire.
December 10, 2019 - 253 -
Triggered Updates Graphic

December 10, 2019 - 254 -
Solution: Holddown Timers

December 10, 2019 - 255 -
IGRP
• Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a proprietary protocol

developed by Cisco.
• Some of the IGRP key design characteristics emphasize the

following:
• It is a distance vector routing protocol.
• Routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds.
• Bandwidth, load, delay and reliability are used to
create a composite metric.

December 10, 2019 - 256 -
IGRP Stability Features
IGRP has a number of features that are designed to enhance its stability, such as:
• Holddowns
• Split horizons
• Poison reverse updates
Holddowns
Holddowns are used to prevent regular update messages from inappropriately reinstating a
route that may not be up.
Split horizons
Split horizons are derived from the premise that it is usually not useful to send information
about a route back in the direction from which it came.
Poison reverse updates

Split horizons prevent routing loops between adjacent routers, but poison reverse updates are
necessary to defeat larger routing loops.
Today, IGRP is showing its age, it lacks support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM).
Rather than develop an IGRP version 2 to correct this problem, Cisco has built upon IGRP's
legacy of success with Enhanced IGRP.

December 10, 2019 - 257 -
Link State Concepts

December 10, 2019 - 258 -
Link State Routing Features
Link-state algorithms are also known as Dijkstras algorithm or as SPF (shortest path first)
algorithms.
Link-state routing algorithms maintain a complex database of topology information.
The distance vector algorithm are also known as Bellman-Ford algorithms. They have
nonspecific information about distant networks and no knowledge of distant routers.
A link-state routing algorithm maintains full knowledge of distant routers and how they
interconnect. Link-state routing uses:
• Link-state advertisements (LSAs)

A link-state advertisement (LSA) is a small packet of routing information
that is sent between routers.
• Topological database
A topological database is a collection of information gathered from LSAs.
• SPF algorithm
The shortest path first (SPF) algorithm is a calculation performed on the
database resulting in the SPF tree.
• Routing tables – A list of the known paths and interfaces.

December 10, 2019 - 259 -
Link State Routing

December 10, 2019 - 260 -
Comparing Routing Methods

December 10, 2019 - 261 -
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Protocol

December 10, 2019 - 262 -
OSPF is a Link-State Routing Protocols
• Link-state (LS) routers recognize much more information about the

network than their distance-vector counterparts,Consequently LS routers
tend to make more accurate decisions.
• Link-state routers keep track of the following:

• Their neighbours
• All routers within the same area
• Best paths toward a destination

December 10, 2019 - 263 -
Link-State Data Structures
– Neighbor table:
• Also known as the adjacency database

(list of recognized neighbors)
– Topology table:
• Typically referred to as LSDB

(routers and links in the area or network)
• All routers within an area have an identical LSDB
– Routing table:
• Commonly named a forwarding database

(list of best paths to destinations)

December 10, 2019 - 264 -
OSPF Terminology
The next several slides explain various OSPF terms one per slide.

December 10, 2019 - 265 -
OSPF Term: Link

December 10, 2019 - 266 -
OSPF Term: Link State
267
December 10, 2019 - 267 -
OSPF Term: Area
268
December 10, 2019 - 268 -
OSPF Term: Link Cost
269
December 10, 2019 - 269 -
OSPF Term: Forwarding Database

December 10, 2019 - 270 -
OSPF Term: Adjacencies Database

December 10, 2019 - 271 -
OSPF Terms: DR & BDR

December 10, 2019 - 272 -
Link-State Data Structure: Network
Hierarchy
• Link-state routing requires a hierachical

network structure that is enforced by OSPF.
• This two-level hierarchy consists of the
following:
• Transit area (backbone or area 0)
• Regular areas (nonbackbone areas)

December 10, 2019 - 273 -
OSPF Areas

December 10, 2019 - 274 -
Area Terminology

December 10, 2019 - 275 -
OSPF Adjacencies
Routers build logical adjacencies between each other

using the Hello Protocol. Once an adjacency is formed:
• LS database packets are exchanged to synchronize
each other’s LS databases.
• LSAs are flooded reliably throughout the area or network
using these adjacencies.

December 10, 2019 - 276 -
Link State Routing Graphic

December 10, 2019 - 277 -
Open Shortest Path First Calculation
• Routers find the best paths to destinations by applying Dijkstra’s

SPF algorithm to the link-state database as follows:
• Every router in an area has the identical
link-state database.
• Each router in the area places itself into
the root of the tree that is built.
• The best path is calculated with respect to the
lowest total cost of links to a specific destination.
• Best routes are put into the forwarding database.

December 10, 2019 - 278 -
OSPF Packet Types

December 10, 2019 - 279 -
Establishing Bidirectional Communication

December 10, 2019 - 280 -
(Cont.)

December 10, 2019 - 281 -
(Cont.)

December 10, 2019 - 282 -

December 10, 2019 - 283 -
Discovering the Network Routes

December 10, 2019 - 284 -
Discovering the Network Routes

December 10, 2019 - 285 -
Adding the Link-State Entries

December 10, 2019 - 286 -
Adding the Link-State Entries (Cont.)

December 10, 2019 - 287 -
Adding the Link-State Entries

December 10, 2019 - 288 -
Maintaining Routing Information
• Router A notifies all OSPF DRs on 224.0.0.6

December 10, 2019 - 289 -
Maintaining Routing Information (Cont.)

• DR notifies others on 224.0.0.5
December 10, 2019 - 290 -
Maintaining Routing Information (Cont.)

December 10, 2019 - 291 -
Maintaining Routing Information

December 10, 2019 - 292 -
Configuring Basic OSPF: Single Area
Router(config)#
router ospf process-id

• Turns on one or more OSPF routing processes in
the IOS software.
Router(config-router)#
network address inverse-mask area [area-id]

• Router OSPF subordinate command that defines
the interfaces (by network number) that OSPF
will run on. Each network number must be
defined to a specific area.
December 10, 2019 - 293 -
Configuring OSPF on Internal Routers of a
Single Area

December 10, 2019 - 294 -
Verifying OSPF Operation
Router#
show ip protocols
• Verifies the configured IP routing protocol
processes, parameters and statistics
Router#
show ip route ospf
• Displays all OSPF routes learned by the router
Router#
show ip ospf interface
• Displays the OSPF router ID, area ID and
adjacency information
December 10, 2019 - 295 -
Verifying OSPF Operation (Cont.)
Router#
show ip ospf
• Displays the OSPF router ID, timers, and statistics
Router#
show ip ospf neighbor [detail]

• Displays information about the OSPF neighbors,
including Designated Router (DR) and Backup
Designated Router (BDR) information on
broadcast networks

December 10, 2019 - 296 -
The show ip route ospf Command
RouterA# show ip route ospf
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M -

mobile,
B - BGP, D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF,
IA - OSPF inter area, E1 - OSPF external type 1,
E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP, i - IS-IS, L1 -
IS-IS
level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 is subnetted, 2 subnets
O 10.2.1.0 [110/10] via 10.64.0.2, 00:00:50, Ethernet0

December 10, 2019 - 297 -
The show ip ospf interface Command
RouterA# show ip ospf interface e0
Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up

Internet Address 10.64.0.1/24, Area 0
Process ID 1, Router ID 10.64.0.1, Network Type
BROADCAST, Cost: 10
Transmit Delay is 1 sec, State DROTHER, Priority 1
Designated Router (ID) 10.64.0.2, Interface address
10.64.0.2
Backup Designated router (ID) 10.64.0.1, Interface
address 10.64.0.1
Timer intervals configured, Hello 10, Dead 40, Wait 40,
Retransmit 5
Hello due in 00:00:04
Neighbor Count is 1, Adjacent neighbor count is 1
Adjacent with neighbor 10.64.0.2 (Designated Router)
Suppress hello for 0 neighbor(s)

December 10, 2019 - 298 -
The show ip ospf neighbor Command
RouterB# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri State Dead Time Address Interface

10.64.1.1 1 FULL/BDR 00:00:31 10.64.1.1 Ethernet0
10.2.1.1 1 FULL/- 00:00:38 10.2.1.1 Serial0

December 10, 2019 - 299 -
show ip protocol
show ip route

December 10, 2019 - 300 -
show ip ospf neighbor detail
show ip ospf database

December 10, 2019 - 301 -
OSPF Network Types - 1

December 10, 2019 - 302 -
Point-to-Point Links
• Usually a serial interface running either PPP

or HDLC
• May also be a point-to-point subinterface
running Frame Relay or ATM
• No DR or BDR election required
• OSPF autodetects this interface type
• OSPF packets are sent using multicast 224.0.0.5

December 10, 2019 - 303 -
Multi-access Broadcast Network
• Generally LAN technologies like Ethernet and Token Ring

• DR and BDR selection required
• All neighbor routers form full adjacencies with the DR and
BDR only
• Packets to the DR use 224.0.0.6
• Packets from DR to all other routers use 224.0.0.5
December 10, 2019 - 304 -
EIGRP

December 10, 2019 - 305 -
Overview
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a Cisco-

proprietary routing protocol based on Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(IGRP).
Unlike IGRP, which is a classful routing protocol, EIGRP supports CIDR

and VLSM.
Compared to IGRP, EIGRP boasts faster convergence times, improved

scalability, and superior handling of routing loops.
Furthermore, EIGRP can replace Novell Routing Information Protocol

(RIP) and AppleTalk Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP),
serving both IPX and AppleTalk networks with powerful efficiency.
EIGRP is often described as a hybrid routing protocol, offering the best

of distance vector and link-state algorithms.
December 10, 2019 - 306 -
Comparing EIGRP with IGRP
IGRP and EIGRP are compatible with each other.

EIGRP offers multiprotocol support, but IGRP does not.
EIGRP and IGRP use different metric calculations.
EIGRP scales the metric of IGRP by a factor of 256.
IGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.
EIGRP has a maximum hop count limit of 224.
Enabling dissimilar routing protocols such as OSPF and RIP to

share information requires advanced configuration.
Redistribution, the sharing of routes, is automatic between
IGRP and EIGRP as long as both processes use the same
autonomous system (AS) number.
Proprietary and Confidential - 307 -
December 10, 2019
EIGRP & IGRP Metric Calculation

December 10, 2019 - 308 -

December 10, 2019 - 309 -

December 10, 2019 - 310 -
EIGRP Concepts & Terminology
EIGRP routers keep route and topology information readily

available in RAM, so they can react quickly to changes.
Like OSPF, EIGRP saves this information in several tables and

databases.
EIGRP saves routes that are learned in specific ways.
Routes are given a particular status and can be tagged to

provide additional useful information.
EIGRP maintains three tables:

• Neighbor table
• Topology table
• Routing table
Proprietary and Confidential - 311 -
December 10, 2019
Neighbor Table
The neighbor table is the most important table in EIGRP.
Each EIGRP router maintains a neighbor table that lists adjacent

routers. This table is comparable to the adjacency database used by
OSPF. There is a neighbor table for each protocol that EIGRP
supports.
When a neighbor sends a hello packet, it advertises a hold time. The

hold time is the amount of time a router treats a neighbor as
reachable and operational. In other words, if a hello packet is not
heard within the hold time, then the hold time expires.
When the hold time expires, the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL),
which is the EIGRP distance vector algorithm, is informed of the
topology change and must recalculate the new topology.
December 10, 2019 - 312 -
Topology Table
The topology table is made up of all the EIGRP routing tables in the
autonomous system.
DUAL takes the information supplied in the neighbor table and the topology
table and calculates the lowest cost routes to each destination. By tracking
this information, EIGRP routers can identify and switch to alternate routes
quickly.
The information that the router learns from the DUAL is used to determine
the successor route, which is the term used to identify the primary or best
route.
A copy is also placed in the topology table.
Every EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each configured network
protocol. All learned routes to a destination are maintained in the topology
table.

December 10, 2019 - 313 -
Routing Table
The EIGRP routing table holds the best routes to a destination. This
information is retrieved from the topology table. Each EIGRP router
maintains a routing table for each network protocol.
A successor is a route selected as the primary route to use to reach a

destination.DUAL identifies this route from the information contained in the
neighbor and topology tables and places it in the routing table.
There can be up to four successor routes for any particular route. These
can be of equal or unequal cost and are identified as the best loop-free
paths to a given destination.
A copy of the successor routes is also placed in the topology table.
A feasible successor (FS) is a backup route. These routes are identified at

the same time the successors are identified, but they are only kept in the
topology table. Multiple feasible successors for a destination can be
retained in the topology table although it is not mandatory.
December 10, 2019 - 314 -
EIGRP Data Structure
Like OSPF, EIGRP relies on different types of packets to maintain its various tables
and establish complex relationships with neighbor routers. The five EIGRP packet
types are:
• Hello
• Acknowledgment
• Update
• Query
• Reply
EIGRP relies on hello packets to discover, verify, and rediscover neighbor routers.
Rediscovery occurs if EIGRP routers do not receive hellos from each other for a
hold time interval but then re-establish communication.
EIGRP routers send hellos at a fixed but configurable interval, called the hello
interval. The default hello interval depends on the bandwidth of the interface.
On IP networks, EIGRP routers send hellos to the multicast IP address 224.0.0.10.

December 10, 2019 - 315 -
EIGRP Algorithm
The sophisticated DUAL algorithm results in the exceptionally fast

convergence of EIGRP.
Each router constructs a topology table that contains information about how
to route to a destination network.
Each topology table identifies the following:

• The routing protocol or EIGRP
• The lowest cost of the route, which is called Feasible Distance
• The cost of the route as advertised by the neighboring router,
which is called Reported Distance
The Topology heading identifies the preferred primary route, called the
successor route (Successor), and, where identified, the backup route,
called the feasible successor (FS). Note that it is not necessary to have an
identified feasible successor.

December 10, 2019 - 316 -
FS Route Selection Rules

December 10, 2019 - 317 -
DUAL
Example
318
December 10, 2019 - 318 -
Configuring EIGRP

December 10, 2019 - 319 -
Configuring EIGRP Summarization
EIGRP automatically summarizes routes at the classful boundary.
This is the boundary where the network address ends, as defined by class-
based addressing.
This means that even though RTC is connected only to the subnet 2.1.1.0,
it will advertise that it is connected to the entire Class A network, 2.0.0.0.
In most cases auto summarization is beneficial because it keeps routing

tables as compact as possible.

December 10, 2019 - 320 -
show ip eigrp neighbors
show ip eigrp interfaces

December 10, 2019 - 321 -
show ip eigrp topology
show ip eigrp topology

[active | pending | successors]

December 10, 2019 - 322 -
Show ip eigrp topology all-links
show ip eigrp traffic

December 10, 2019 - 323 -
Administrative Distances

December 10, 2019 - 324 -
Network Devices and Vendor
• Routers - Cisco, Juniper, Nortel, Avaya, Alcatel, Nokia-Siemens

, Ericssonetc
• Switches - Cisco, Juniper, Extreme, Dlink
• Firewalls - Cisco ASA, Juniper Netscreen, Check point
• Load Balancers / Optimisers – Alcatel, Riverbed
• Wireless Routers / Access Points – Cisco Lynksys, D link, Net

Gear

December 10, 2019 - 325 -
Advance Networking
Technologies
• VPN
• MPLS
• VPLS
• QoS
• VOIP
• Telepresence
• Multicasting
• BGP

December 10, 2019 - 326 -

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Networking Fundamentals

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This introduction prepares new comers to:

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• A network consists of two or more

• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that

• In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is

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• See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of

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• To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be

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• It stands for Metropolitan Area Network

A new Area Team widely used in Wireless Data Technology is BAN

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• Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred

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To address the problem of networks increasing in size

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• ISO - International Organization for Standardization

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7 Application The OSI Model will be

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7 Application This layer deal with All

7 Application This layer is responsible

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7 Application This layer establishes,

1 Physical PDU - Formatted Data

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7 Application It provides end-to-end

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7 Application The network layer is

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7 Application The data link layer is

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7 Application Deals with Physical,

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1. High Availability / high up time

4. Low Cost of deployment

5. Ease of Maintenance/ Operation

6. Low cost of Operation

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Various symbols are used to represent media types.

The function of media is to carry a flow of information

Each media has advantages and disadvantages.

• EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.

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• The registered jack (RJ-45) connector and jack are the

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Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an RJ-

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A straight-thru cable has T568B on both ends. A

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• Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

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Noise is any electrical energy on the

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• Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers