Perubahan Iklim, Konvensi

Perubahan Iklim dan

Strategi Mitigasi GRK
TNH 616201 2(2-0), Semester Ganjil 2019/2020

Dosen: Profesor Muhajir Utomo

1
 Garis Besar Perkuliahan Ilmu
Lingkungan (MU)
• Perubahan Iklim: Imajinasi atau Kenyataan?
• Kapan dan Mengapa Terjadi Perubahan Iklim?
• Efek Rumah Kaca
• Dampak pada Sektor Pertanian
• Konvensi dan Masalah-masalah Lingkungan
• Pertanian dan Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca
• Strategi Mitigasi Gas Rumah Kaca

2
Introduction
 What is climate change?
Myth or Reality?
• We need to clarify two concepts often
mistaken for synonyms: climate change and
global warming. There is an important
difference between them, however, given that
it is global warming that causes climate
change.
• Climate change is a global challenge that has
no borders and to combat it requires
coordinated work by all countries.

4
 What is and Why it Happened
• The scientific community and governments across the world are in
agreement - the climate is changing.
• Climate change means a significant change in the measures of
climate, such as temperature, rainfall, or wind, lasting for an
extended period – decades or longer. The Earth's climate has
changed many times during the planet's history, with events
ranging from ice ages to long periods of warmth.
• What’s different about this period of the earth’s history is that
human activities are significantly contributing to natural climate
change through our emissions of greenhouse gases.
• This interference is resulting in increased air and ocean
temperatures, drought, melting ice and snow, rising sea levels,
increased rainfall, flooding and other influences. (EPA, 2019.
https://www.epa.ie/climate)

5
 What causes climate change ?
• Climate change can result from natural processes and factors and more
recently due to human activities through our emissions of greenhouse
gases
• Examples of natural factors include:
Changes in the sun's intensity
Volcanic eruptions, or slow changes in the
Earth's orbit around the sun
Natural processes within the climate system such as changes in
ocean current circulation
• Examples of human activities contributing to climate change include:
Carbon dioxide emissions through burning fossil fuels such as coal,
oil and gas and peat
Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture
Emissions through land use changes such as deforestation,
reforestation, urbanization, desertification (IPCC)

6
 Causes behind global warming
• Forests are natural carbon sinks, absorbing CO2
through photosynthesis and returning oxygen to the
atmosphere. Deforestration means reducing C sink
• The oceans are also carbon sinks, absorbing up to 50 %
of CO2. The problem is that, when they reach their
limit, the ocean acidifies and causes death and disease
among marine flora and fauna.
• An increasingly numerous population needs more and
more resources, which speeds up the increase in
greenhouse gas emissions from all production
processes

7
 Types of Greenhouse Gas that affect
global warming
• Carbon dioxide: caused by the burning mainly
of fossil fuels in electricity generation,
transport, heating, industry and construction.

• Methane: from livestock, rice farming and

waste tips.

• Nitrogen oxide: caused by excess use of

fertilizers and industrial activity.

• HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons): gas of

anthropogenic origin (result of human
activities) replacing CFCs. Harmless to the
ozone layer, but increases the greenhouse
effect.

8
 Table . Estimates of anthropogenic CO2 emission by agricultural activities
and the industrial revolution (IPCC, 2001; Lal, 1999; Ruddiman, 2003, 2005).

Eras Emission (Gt)

Preindustrial 320

Postindustrial:

Fossil fuel 270 ± 30

Land use 136 ± 55

Soil 78 ± 12

Erosion 26 ± 6

Source: Greenhouse Gas Working Group. 2010, SSSA

Global GHG Emission by Sectors. Around 65% of Global Emissions are
from Fossil Fuel
 Definitions
• A source is a net • The processes that
contribution to the result in carbon
atmosphere, while a accumulation are called
sink is a net withdrawal carbon sinks or carbon
of greenhouse gases. sequestration.
• Carbon footprint is the • This repeats with each
total greenhouse gas growth, harvest, and
emissions for a given decay cycle, therefore,
person, place, event or feedstuffs and foods are
product. generally considered to
be carbon “neutral.”

12
 Climate Changes:
When Did Humans First Begin and
Consequences
 When did humans first begin to cause
climate change?
• Experts agree that the Industrial Revolution was the turning point
when emissions of greenhouse effect gases entering the
atmosphere began to soar.
• From then onward, population growth (in 1750, there were fewer
than 800 million people on Earth, whereas now we are over 7.5
billion), exploding resource use, increasing energy demand and
production, mainly from fossil fuels, all saw the planet enter into
what the scientific community have termed the Anthropocene
period, a new geological era characterized by human impact on
Earth.
• The main impact was the increase in the global temperature of the
planet, which has risen 1.1°C since this period, although it is
estimated that, by the end of the present Century, the
thermometer could rise by 2.7 °C even if national commitments to
reduce emissions are fulfilled.

14
Figure. Atmospheric concentration of CO2, CH4, and N2O during the past millennium.2 Note the
difference in radiative forcing of the three greenhouse gases, indicating the relative power to
evoke change in the atmosphere.

Industrial
Revolution

Source: Greenhouse Gas Working Group. 2010, SSSA

15
16
Climate Change Due to Global Warming?

Industrial
Revolution 17
18
 Consequences of climate change
• The global temperature increase brings disastrous
consequences, endangering the survival of the Earth’s flora
and fauna, including human beings. The worst climate
change impacts include the melting of the ice mass at the
poles, which in turn causes rising sea level, producing
flooding and threatening coastal environments through
which small island states risk disappearing entirely.

• Climate change also increases the appearance of more

violent weather phenomena, drought, fires, the death of
animal and plant species, flooding from rivers and lakes,
the creation of climate refugees and destruction of the
food chain and economic resources, especially in
developing countries.
19
31/10
 Effect of Climate Change on
Environments
• Variations in life conditions in natural environments cause
death, disease and massive migrations of species.
• Heat causes the melting of the ice at the poles, which
increases the sea level and threatens to submerge coastal
communities and small island states.
• The absorption of too much CO₂ causes death and disease
among fish, algae, coral and other organisms in the sea.
• Changes in ecosystems and desertification cause the death
of between 10,000 and 50,000 species every year.
• The existence of climate refugees, still to be recognized by
the United Nations, is a reality; it is estimated their number
could reach one billion by 2050.

21
Effect of Climate Change on
Agriculture

22
 Effects of Climate Change on
Agriculture
• Out of 50.000 edible plant species, only three: wheat,
rice and corn- make up more than half of the world
food supply.
• The effects of climate change on agricultural crops are
complex: drought, flooding, extra CO2, warming effect
etc.
• According to UN: relative winners and loosers in
agriculture due to the effect of climate change are:
1) Losses in the tropics: at least 5% decline in
cereal crops
2) Gains in the north: 3-10% increase in cereal
productivity (Henson, 2007).
23
How can we avoid climate change?
• First, it is important to be clear that climate
change cannot be avoided. We can mitigate its
effects and adapt to its consequences, i.e. we can
fight it through the application of small and large
scale measures that help to slow down climate
change.
• These actions are known as climate change
mitigation and adaptation measures.
• Need international agreements to reduce GHG
emissions
(https://www.acciona.com, 2019)
24
 GLOBAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGES:
The Kyoto Protocol Convention

• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding
emission reduction targets.

25
• The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which
extends the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits
state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global
warming is occurring and (part two) it is extremely
likely that human-made CO2 emissions have
predominantly caused it.
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11
December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February
2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada
withdrew from the protocol, effective December
2012)[4] to the Protocol.
26
• The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases
listed in Annex A: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),
Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6).[6]
• The Protocol is based on the principle of common but
differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledges that
individual countries have different capabilities in
combating climate change, owing to economic
development, and therefore puts the obligation to
reduce current emissions on developed countries on
the basis that they are historically responsible for the
current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

27
 GLOBAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGES: SDGs

September 2015: Sustainable Development Goals (SDG )

2030: 17 Goals
o Sustainable development includes social, economic and environmental
dimensions.
o The Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) focused heavily on important
social development issues, such as poverty, health and education, to the
exclusion of economic and environmental aspects.
o The SDGs attempt to balance the three dimensions and they are the first
attempt that has been made to integrate this approach across such a
broad range of issues at the UN.

o Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

12/10/2019 28
 Global Action to Combat Climate Change (Goals # 13 & 2):
Four per Mille Soils: What is it?
• The ‘4 per mille Soils for Food Security and Climate’
was launched at the COP21 (21st Conference of the
Parties) with an aspiration to increase global soil
organic matter stocks by 4 per 1000 (or 0.4 %) per
year as a compensation for the global emissions of
greenhouse gases by anthropogenic sources. It
launched in Paris in November 30 to December 11,
2015.
• The challenge for cropping farmers is to find
disruptive technologies that will further improve soil
condition and deliver increased soil carbon.

12/10/2019 29
 Soil carbon 4 per mille

12/10/2019 30
Agriculture and Greenhouse Gas
Emission
 Agriculture: a Victim and
Contributor of Global Warming
 Global temperature is projected to increase 1.5-
5.8 °C during the 21st century (IPCC, 2001)
 Although agriculture is a victim of environ-
mental risk, but agriculture also contributes
to global warming
 In contrast to US agriculture that
only contributes 6%, along with
land use change and forest,
Indonesia agriculture contributes
to CO2 emission as much 53%
(Boer, 2010).

32
Effect of Climate Change on
Agriculture

33
Agriculture emission sources

34
 Agriculture Is Both A Source and Sink
• Agriculture is both a source
and sink for greenhouse gases
(GHG). A source is a net
contribution to the
atmosphere, while a sink is a
net withdrawal of greenhouse
gases.
• Excess nitrogen in agriculture
systems can be converted to
nitrous oxide through the
nitrification-denitrification
process. Nitrous oxide is a very
potent greenhouse gas, with
310 times greater global
warming potential than carbon
dioxide.

35
 Agriculture Is Both A Source and Sink (2)
• Nitrous oxide can be produced
in soils following fertilizer
application. This includes both
commercial, inorganic fertilizer
as well as organic fertilizers
like manure or compost.
• Soil and plant respiration adds
carbon dioxide back to the
atmosphere when microbes or
plants breakdown molecules
to produce energy.
• This repeats with each growth,
harvest, and decay cycle,
therefore, feedstuffs and
foods are generally considered
to be carbon “neutral.”
• Some carbon dioxide is stored
in soils for long periods of
time. The processes that
result in carbon accumulation
are called carbon sinks or
carbon sequestration.
• Crop production and grazing
management practices
influence the soil’s ability to be
a net source or sink for
greenhouse gases.
• Managing soils in ways that
increase organic matter levels
can increase the accumulation
(sink) of soil carbon for many
years.
 Agro-ecosystems Contribute to CO2
Emission through:
 Direct use of fossil fuels in food production
 Indirect use of embodied energy in inputs
 Cultivation of soils resulting the loss of
carbon through decomposition and erosion
(Ball and Pretty, 2002).
 As business as usual practice, intensive
tillage produces favorable soil
microenvironment that can accelerate
microbial decomposition of plant residues.
 Land clearing by burning

37
38
Strategy to Reduce and Anticipate Effects
of Climate Change in Agro-ecosystem

(1) Mitigating GHG emission through

(a) reducing GHG emission ,
(b) increasing biomass production
through photosyntheses
(c) Increasing soil C stock will enhance
soil quality
(2) Promoting plant varieties that
adapted to climate change
Strategy to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas
Emission in Agro-ecosystem (2)

Develop agricultural management practices

that can enhance C input and reduce C losses:

Addition of carbon to soil is favored by management practices

that increase plant residues.
Reduction of carbon loss is favored by reducing soil
disturbance/soil tillage
 Increasing soil C stock will enhance soil quality and
productivity
Conservation Tillage and other Conservation Agriculture fit
with this strategy, but along with other best practices, need 20 to
30 years to increase carbon stocks in the soil.
 Conservation Agriculture and Crop
Residue Interaction
Intensive Tillage Crop Residues Conservation Tillage
• Disturbed Soil • Erosion Control • Undisturbed Soil
• Weak Aggregation • Nurtient Cycling • Strong Aggregation
• High Erosion • Soil Biodiversity • Low Erosion
• High SOM • Water • Low SOM
Decomposition Conservation Decomposition
• High CO2 Emission • Carbon • Low CO2 Emission
Sequestration
• High Soil • Low Soil
Compaction Compaction

Reducing Soil Quality Improving Soil Quality

Decreasing Soil Productivity Sustaining Soil Productivity

Contrast: Intensive tillage versus No- tillage
 Conservation Tillage can Reduce
CO2 Emission, Corn Season, 2009

 Before plowing, CO2 emissions were no significantly

difference among tillage systems
 A sharp increase of CO2 emission from IT occurred just
2 hours after plowing, peaked at 8 hours after plowing
and after that start declining
 One day after plowing, CO2 emission from IT was 54 kg
CO2/ha/day, the highest among treatments and 4.6 times
higher than NT
 Different from IT, CO2 emission from CT was not
substantially increased all season long
 CO2 emission per season from IT,
MT and NT were 3.9, 1.6 and 1.0 ton
CO2/ha/season, respectively
 CO2 Emission of Conservation Tillage Corn, 2009

60

50
IT MT NT

40
Kg CO2/ha/day

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Days after tillage

(Utomo et al., 2009)

 60 2500

50
2000

kg CO2-C ha-1 day-1

40
Kg CO2/ha/day

1500
30

1000
20

10 500

0
0 20 40 60 80 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Days after tillage
Days after tillage
IT MT NT IT MT NT

(Utomo et al., 2009;

Utomo et al., 2011)
CO2 Emission (left), and
Cummulative CO2 Emission from CT Corn (right)

 A sharp increase of CO2 emission from IT occurred just 2 hours after plowing,
peaked at 8 hours after plowing (at 1 DAP), and after that start declining.
Emission of CO2 from CT was less than IT
 Cumulative CO2 emission of IT =2.0 ton CO2-C ha,-1 season-1, MT= 1.5 ton
CO2-C ha,-1 season-1, NT , 1.0 ton CO2-C ha,-1 season-1
 Conservation Tillage can Increase
C Sequestration, Corn Season, 2009
 Total C sequestration was the highest in combination of
NT with 100 kg N/ha (33.4 ton C/ha), while the lowest was
in IT with 0 kg N/ha (27.1 ton C/ha)
 More than 61% of C sequestration was in the soil, and
the highest (33 ton C/ha) was obtained in NT and it was
15.8% higher than IT
 This was attributed to the addition of
previous plant residues and lower soil
organic matter decomposition with
respect of CT
 CT sequestered as much as
0.1 to 0.4 ton C/ha/yr (Lal, 1998).
 Carbon Sequestration of CT after 25
Years of Cropping
Net carbon sequestration of corn, Carbon sequestration of CT after
2012 25 years of cropping, 1987-2012
Intensive tillage Minimum tillage No-tillage 60
14
 NT has carbon sequestration rate of 0.2 Mg C
ha-1 yr-1.
50
12

10 40

Mg C ha-1
Mg C ha-1 season-1

8
30

6
20

10
2

0
0 Intensive tillage Minimum tillage No-tillage
Biomass-C CO2-C Net C seq
Soil (0-20 cm) Stalk Grain Weed
Emission (Utomo, 2013b)
 Conservation Tillage can Reduce
CO2 Emission, Soybean Season

 Similar to corn season, CO2 emision from IT in

soybean was consistently higher than CT
 MT and NT corn reduced CO2 emission as
much as 59% and 74%, respectively; while in
soybean, MT and NT reduced CO2 emission as
much as 67% and 74%
 Total CO2 emission per year from IT, MT and NT
were 9.7, 4.8 and 3.9 ton CO2/ha/yr, respectively
 This was attributable to the fact that IT
produces favorable soil microenvironment to
accelerate microbial decomposition of SOC.
 Methane Emissions from Rice
Cultivation: Flooded Rice Fields
• Anaerobic decomposition of organic material in
flooded rice fields produces methane (CH4), which
escapes to the atmosphere primarily by diffusive
transport through the rice plants during the growing
season.
• The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC, 1996)
estimated the global emission
rate from paddy fields at 60 Tg/yr
(Terra gram =1012 g) with a range
of 20 to 100 Tg/yr.
This is about 5-20 per cent of the
total emission from all anthropogenic sources.
 Methane Production Processes

• The major pathways of CH4 production in flooded soils are the

reduction of CO2 with H2, with fatty acids or alcohols as hydrogen
donor, and the trans-methylation of acetic acid or methanol by
methane-producing bacteria (Takai, 1970; Conrad 1989).
• The redox potential is one important factor for production of CH4
in soils. The Eh, or electron activity, of the soil gradually
decreases after flooding. The redox potential of a soil must be
below approximately -150 mV in order to have CH4 production.
• It is known that soil methanotrophic bacteria can grow with CH4
as their sole energy source, and other soil bacteria
• CH4 is emitted via aerenchima via diffusion and ebolution.
Methane Production Proccess in
Paddy Field
 Managing methane emissions from
wetland rice
o Estimates of global rice-derived methane contributions are as
much as 92 Mt in 2005 and predicted to rise to 131 Mt in
2025. It is estimated that 19 Mt is emitted from irrigated and
6.5 from rainfed lands (after Yan et al., 2009).
o Emissions during the growing season can be reduced by
various practices (Yagi et al., 1997; Wassmann et al., 2000;
Aulakh et al., 2001), such as aerobic rice and alternate
wetting and drying where conditions allow.
o However, draining once per year could reduce methane
emissions by 4.1 Mt/year rising to 7.6 Mt/year if combined
with straw incorporation (Padgham, 2009).
o Rotation with corn/legume which no much water
Managing GHG Emission in Peatland
Ecosystem
 Peatland area : 20.6 million ha; Rank # 4th in the world
after Russia, Canada, USA
 50% of tropical peatland; 11% of land area of Indonesia
 Distributed in Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua
(Bappenas, 2009; Hilman, 2010)
Convey important eco-system services such as hydrology, biodiversity above
and below ground, huge carbon stock that related to climate change and
local values; all for the prosperity of the people and the nation
Peat Fire
Over drainage
 Peat Forest Conversion
 Contributing to GHG Emission
 GHG emission in Indonesia mostly from peatlands (47%)
 Indonesia committed to reduce GHG emissions by 26-41% in 2020
 One of the policy options is by peatland management practices
(Bappenas, 2009; MoE, 2009).
 GHG emission in Indonesia mostly from peatlands (47%)
 Indonesia committed to reduce GHG emissions by 26-41% in 2020
 One of the policy options is by peatland management practices
(Bappenas, 2009; MoE, 2009).
Forest Plantation
 (NEE)

NEP= NPP- Rm

(Minkkinen, et al. 2008)

 Part of the carbon photosynthesised of the plants is transformed to plant structure
and organic compound
 Some are broken down to supply the plants with energy (respiration), and CO2 from this process is
back into the atmosphere or again sequestered by plant through photosynthesis
 The net result of the C sequestration and the various fluxes of CO2 is the net sinker or emitter of the system
 90 0

80 10

70 20
30

Water Table (cm)

60
Rainfall (mm)

40
50
50
40
60
30
70
20 80
10 90
0 100
Jan-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 May-11 Jun-11 Jul-11 Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11
Month
(Setiawan et al. 2013)

Rain WT MIN MAX

 100 300

90 270

80 240

70 210

CO2 Emission (kg/ha)

Rainfall (mm)

60 180

50 150

40 120

30 90

20 60

10 30

0 0
Jan-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 May-11 Jun-11 Jul-11 Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11
Rain CO2 MAX
(Setiawan et al. 2013)

http://budindra.staff.ipb.ac.id 65
 Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Practice
 A knowlegde based practice that integrate soils, water, biodiversity and environment management to
meet rising food and fiber demands ,while sustaining ecosystem services and livelihoods (The World Bank,
2006).
 SLM practices: crop choice (A. crassicarpa), no burn land preparation and eco-hydro
 With no-burn land preparation and eco-hydro practice, optimum water table can be achieved, resulting in
reduction of CO2 emission and enhancement of the growth of A. crassicarpa
14/11
69
 60 0

50 100

40 200

Water Table (cm)

Soil Mostuire (%)
g C-CO2/m2/day

30 300

20 400

10 500

0 600
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47

Week

Water Table A. crassicarpa 3 years A.crassicarpa 3yr A.crassicarpa 3 yr -R-L Soil Moisture

 CO2 flux from A crassicarpa with litter >than that with no litter
 Higher CO2 flux occured between FC and WP; while less CO2 flux
was under WP
 CO2 flux from mineral soil < than peat soil (Sumawinata, et al. 2013)
70
 120

105

100

80
Ton CO2/Ha/yr

65.7
58.61
60 Baseline
51.51
2011
40.296 42.048
31.536 33.93 32.73 2012
40
31.536 31.536 27.97 Average
29
26.73

20 15.65
11.40

0
Hb Ac Hbp Mf Tf

(Utomo, et al. 2013)

Landuses

Eco-hydrology Land Use Allocation

Eco hydro land uses allocation

71
Stem (dry weight) 81 kg
Bark (dry weight) 9 kg
Leaf (dry weight) 6 kg
Branch (dry weight) 18 kg
Root (dry weight) 32 kg
Total weight of trees 147 kg
Avg standing stock/ha/4thn 950
Total Standing Biomass 139.6 ton/ha
Necromass accumulation 24.3 ton/ha
Litterfall accumulation 36.0 ton/ha
Total Biomass 199.9 ton/ha
Total C Stock (4 yo) – 49%
97.9 ton/ha
biomass
CO₂ sequestration/4 yr 362.4 ton/ha/4 yr
CO₂ sequestration/ha/yr 90.6 ton/ha/yr

72
 120

100 97

80
Ton CO2/ha/yr

59
60 56

41
38
40

20

0
Tot Seq Harvested In field Emission Pot Seq Net Seq

-20
-18

-40

 By assuming 42% left in the field

 Previous decomposed litters, barks and brances were excluded (Utomo, et al. 2013)
 By considering those biomass, net sequestration would be positive
 Summary from Accacia
AND POLICY IMPLICATION
1. Peat subsidences of the landuses are reduced to a slower
rate than baseline

2. Both forest plantation and natural forest have CO2

emissions. SLM can reduce CO2 emission to 44% than BAU

3. CO2 emissions from (a) older crop is higher than younger

one, (b) peat with litter is higher than no litter, (c) peat soil
is higher than mineral soil.

4. Forest plantation with A. crassicarpa, no burn policy and

eco-hydro has a positive carbon balance

5. SLM is promoted as recommended management practice

national wide for mitigating GHG emission

6. Research on carbon budget and belowground biodiversiy

related to GHG emission are needed
74
Oil Palm Plantation

Source: Supiandi Sabiham1 and Petrus Gunarso (2013)2

Why oil-palm plantation
Several reasons
1. Technically,
- it is relatively easy to maintain during its growing
compared to the other agricultural crops.
- it has high economic values; and it can be
harvested
every two weeks, so the farmers can get monthly
income.
2. It has the function as afforestation (as FAO
criteria), because: oil palm trees have canopy that
cover almost 100% at mature age, and they are
also categorized as permanent crops which will
only be replanted after 25 yrs.
3. Oil-palm tree has also the function as renewable
energy producer.

76
Why oil-palm plantation
Oil-palm tree has high oil production compared to the
other vegetable oils
Production (ton ha-1)

3.65
6 Palm oil cost production vs

Productivity (ton yr-1)

productivity
5
4 ▲PA oil
3
0.75 2
RS oil
0.37
0.50
1 ▲
SB oil▲ ▲SF oil
0
SB SF RS PA 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
oil oil oil oil Cost production ($ ton-1)

Source: Oil world [2008];

Notes: SB=Soybean; SF=Sunflower; RS=Rapeseed; PA=Palm
77
 1990: -
Distribution of oil-palm 1990: 86,000
2000: 19.334 ha
plantation [condition of 2010] 2005: 38.694
2000: ha
737,000
2010: 317.515
2005: ha
1,096,000
2010: 2,896,000

[Tropenbos Int’l-Indonesia, 2012] 1990: -

2000: -29,000
1990:
2005: 1.279
2000: ha
48,000
2010: 1.727
2005: ha
69,000
2010: 83,000
1990: 264.310 ha
1990: 1,222,000
2000: 704.474 ha
2000: 2,893,000
2005: 1.011.902 ha
2005: 3,990,000
2010: 1.395.737 ha
2010: 4,743,000
78
Oil-palm plantation development
Related to national and international issues

1. Social issue: oil-palm plantation vs indigenous people 

for some areas without compensation occupying the lands.
2. Environmental issues:
- there are opinions that oil palm plantation had directly
replaced primary forest that caused land use change;
in fact, it was not all true.
- water pollution as liquid waste produced by palm-oil mill
effluent (POME); recently this can be converted into
biogas (methane) through methane capture and CBG
- GHG emission – particularly C emission from peatlands;
this can be solved by BMP.
79
Oil Palm Plantations

Source: M Utomo, 2012

80
Understory cover crops

Nephrolepis sp.

Legume cover
crops
81
C emission - particularly from peatlands
Average of CO2 emission from oil-palm plantations
in peatlands
(ton CO2 ha-1 yr-1)
Melling et al. [2007] 57.06
depending on the
Melling et al. [2005] 55
Murayama & Burn [1996] 54 age of oil-palm
Germer & Sauaerborn [2008] 31.4 trees

The emission can be reduce by BMP [Sabiham, 2012]:

- water management (maintaining ground water table)
- giving mineral materials to maintain ash content at 6%
- maintaining understory cover crops at the age of oil
palm trees of <6 year
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BMP - Water management
Condition of groundwater level in peatlands
during rainy and dry seasons
Based on measurements in 2008/2009 using Piezometer [IPB-BBSDLP, 2011]

Mature peats
Immature peats

Groundwater level varies from 20 to 60 cm below soil surface

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BMP - Water management
Groundwater level and CO2 flux
Flux of CO2 (t ha-1 yr-1)

80
≤ 50 cm 50 - 90 cm ≥ 90 cm
70
60 Forest
50 Shrubs
40 Rubber
30 Oil palm tree
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Max. depth of groundwater level (cm)
84
Maswar et al. 2011
BMP - Water management
An average
Flux of CO2 ( t ha-1 yr-1)

Notes:
Fresh = immature peat;
settled = mature peats

Max. depth of groundwater level (cm) Maswar et al. 2011

85
BMP - C sequestration
Average of biomass production of oil-palm trees
Sabiham et al. [2011]

168.1
Above ground C-stock as the
source of soil organic carbon
(SOC)
79.5

81.8

73.0
63.9
61.8

57.3

54.4

Understory cover
crops dominated by
Nephrolepis sp.
6.8

5.8

could absorb CO2

of about 9.75 ton
ha-1 yr-1.
In BMP Sequential replanting is a must to be conducted
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Biogas - Methane capture
Tandun’s Palm-oil Factory (PKS) , (Owned Government
Estate Company – PTPN V) – Riau
Polyethylene
membrane
Anaerobic pond capped system/
Covered lagoon system
Retention time: 40-60 days.
From palm-oil factory, with
capacity of 30 ton FFB
hour-1, will produce
liquid waste (mill effluent ) &
it then yields of about 600 m3
biogas hour-1 or 5,044 MJ
hour-1 through a process in
APCS
This can potentially produce of
1.0 MW electricity..
87