THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE

LECTURE OUTLINE

I METABOLISM: Muscle Fuel Sources

II ENERGY SYSTEMS: Sport Specific

III STRATEGIES: Performance Enhancement

 I METABOLISM: Muscle Fuel Sources

All physical activities require energy to be released to the

muscles in order to fuel contraction and prevent fatigue.

Important Questions
1. How is energy released?
2. What fuels sources exist in our body?
3. Where does ATP come from?
4. What pathways can we use to make ATP?
5. Why do we slow down?
 METABOLISM: Energy Release

ATP or adenosine triphosphate is the energy currency used by

our body everyday to perform a number of tasks:

• Maintain body temperature

• Repair damaged cells
• Digestion of food
• Mechanical work – movement

ATP ↔ ADP + Energy

 METABOLISM: Our need for Energy

Fact: Our muscles already contain ATP molecules

Problem: There are not enough!

Result: Find other ways to provide our body with ATP

In order to maintain exercise we need to supply our

muscles with an adequate amount of ATP or energy.

Physiology Energy Principle: ATP Supply = ATP Demand

 METABOLISM: Sources of Energy

Question: Where does the additional ATP come

from?
The chemical breakdown of
the fuel sources in our body:

a. Muscle Glycogen
b. Blood Glucose (Liver)
c. Fats (Adipose Tissue)
d. Proteins (Amino Acids)*

ATP ↔ ADP + Energy

ADIPOSE TISSUE BLOOD PLASMA MUSCLE
Triacylglycerol Intramuscular Glycogen
(5,000 grams) Triglyceride
(600 grams)
(350 grams)
Glycerol
FFA

FFA-Albumin FFA Fatty Acids

Mitochondria
FFA Acetyl -CoA

Krebs Cycle &

LIVER
Electron Transport
Glycogen
(100-120 grams)
Glucose ATP
(25 grams)
O2
 METABOLISM: Sources of Energy

Important: two factors determine the amount of ATP

required to perform exercise and the types of fuel used:

a. Exercise Intensity – rate of ATP production

b. Exercise Duration – amount of ATP production

In the next section we will learn to categorise sporting events

using exercise intensity and duration to determine the energy
systems that are being used to provide our bodies with ATP.

ATP ↔ ADP + Energy

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE
METABOLISM: Effects ofINTENSITY ON
Exercise Intensity
FUEL SELECTION DURING EXERCISE
1500 Plasma glucose
Energy expenditure (J/kg/min)

Plasma FFA
1200
IMTG
Muscle glycogen
900

600

300

25 65 85
Relative exercise intensity (% of VO2max)

Romijn et al. Am. J Phsyiol. Endocrin. Metab. 265: E380-E391, 1993.

 METABOLISM: ATP Production

ATP is able to be produced by more than one system/

pathway
A system can be categorised as either:

1. Anaerobic “O2 independent” O2

Does not require oxygen

2. Aerobic “O2 dependent”

Requires oxygen O2
 METABOLISM: Anaerobic Pathways

Remember: these pathways generate energy without using

O2
ATP is produced by these energy systems:

1. ATP-CP system
• ATP ‘reservoir’
• Immediate energy system
2. Anaerobic Glycolysis system
• Exclusively uses CHO
• Short-term “lactic acid” system
 METABOLISM: Aerobic Pathways

Remember: these pathways require O2 to generate energy

ATP is produced by these energy systems:

3. Aerobic glycolytic (CHO) system

• Moderate- to high-intensity exercise CHO
• Finite energy source (CHO →ATP) A
O2 T
4. Aerobic lipolytic (Fat) system P
• Prolonged low-intensity exercise FAT
• Unlimited energy source (Fat →ATP)
II ENERGY SYSTEMS: Athletic Events

This section will enable you to identify the energy

demands of a sporting event and the pathways used.

Important Questions
1. How can we categorise sporting events?
2. What energy systems match these categories?
3. What systems provide energy for 800 m sprint?
4. What system has the greatest capacity?
5. What systems fuel an Hawaii Ironman triathlon?
 ENERGY SYSTEMS: Athletic Events

 Sporting events can be classified into 4 main

categories listed below:

1. Power Events

2. Speed Events

3. Endurance Events

4. Ultra-Endurance Events
 ENERGY SYSTEMS: Pathways

The body has 4 distinct systems it can use to supply

energy for these different types of events:

Event Energy System

1. Power (Jump) ATP-CP system (phosphagen)

2. Speed (Sprint) Anaerobic system (O2 independent)

3. Endurance (Run) Aerobic glycolytic (CHO) system

4. Ultra-Endurance Aerobic lipolytic (Fat) system

ENERGY SYSTEMS: ATP-CP (Phosphagen)

Event Type: Maximal strength & speed

Event Duration: 0 - 6 sec (Dominant System)

Energy Sources
1. ATP ↔ ADP + Pi + H+
2. CP + ADP + H+ ↔ ATP + Cr

Availability: Immediate- stored in muscle

Anaerobic Power: Large
Anaerobic Capacity: Small
ENERGY SYSTEMS: Anaerobic (O2 independent)

Event Type: Maximal speed or high-intensity efforts

Event Duration: 6 - 60 sec (Dominant System)

Energy Sources
Muscle Glycogen ↔ 2 ATP + 2 Lactate + 2H+

Availability: Rapid- via glycogen breakdown (glycolysis)

Anaerobic Power: Moderate
Anaerobic Capacity: Larger than ATP-CP
ENERGY SYSTEMS: Aerobic Glycolytic (CHO)

Event Type: Moderate and High-intensity exercise

Event Duration: 2 min – 1.5 hours (Dominant System)

Energy Sources
Carbohydrates + O2 ↔ 38 ATP + by-products

Availability: Fast- via breakdown CHO

Aerobic Power: Large
Aerobic Capacity: Large but limited
ENERGY SYSTEMS: Aerobic Lipolytic (Fat)

Event Type: Low-intensity exercise

Event Duration: 4 hours+ (Dominant System)

Energy Sources
Fats + O2 ↔ 456 ATP + by-products

Availability: Slow- via fat breakdown (lipolysis)

Aerobic Power: Low
Aerobic Capacity: Unlimited
 So we can see that the contribution of these systems

ENERGY SYSTEMS: Effects of Exercise Duration

to energy production will depend on the event type:

6.3% 8%

40%
50% 50%
44.1% 65%

92%

60%
49.6% 50% 50%
35%

6 sec 30 sec 60 sec 2 min 1 hour 4 hours

ATP CP Anaerobic Aerobic Aerobic
Glycolytic Glycolytic Lipolytic

Peak Performance, Hawley & Burke (1998)

III STRATEGIES: Performance Enhancement

Athletes and coaches are

constantly searching for new
ways to improve training and
competition performance.

Sports science has been very

successful in identifying many
strategies that are currently
used by athletes and
coaches.
 STRATEGIES: To increase fat availability

1. Fasting

2. Caffeine ingestion
• (6-9 mg/kg BM)

3. Fat ingestion
• Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA)
• Long-chain fatty acids (LCFA)

4. Intralipid (& heparin) infusion

5. Short-term fat-adaptation
ADIPOSE TISSUE BLOOD PLASMA MUSCLE
Triacylglycerol Intramuscular Glycogen
(5,000 grams) Triglyceride
(600 grams)
(350 grams)
Glycerol
FFA

FFA-Albumin FFA Fatty Acids

Mitochondria
FFA Acetyl -CoA

Krebs Cycle &

LIVER
Electron Transport
Glycogen
(100-120 grams)
Glucose ATP
(25 grams)
O2
 STRATEGIES: Effect of 3-d diet on capacity

250
Time to exhaustion (min)

200
150

100
50

HIGH-CHO HIGH-FAT

Christensen EH & E Hansen. Scand. Arch. Physiol. 81: 161-171, 1939.

 STRATEGIES: Effect of 3-d diet on capacity

“There is clear evidence that short-

term (1-3 days) “fat loading” is
detrimental to endurance capacity
and the performance of prolonged
exercise. Such impairment is likely
to result from a combination of the
premature depletion of (lowered)
muscle glycogen stores and the
absence of any worthwhile increase
in the capacity for fat utilization
during exercise to compensate for the
reduction in available carbohydrate
fuel.”

Burke LM & JA Hawley. Med. Sci. Sports & Exerc. (in press 2002)
 Ratings of Perceived Exertion during intense exercise

18
Ratings of perceived exertion

High-CHO *
High-fat
16

14

12

10

D-1 D-1 D-4 D-4

Stepto NK et al. Med. Sci Sports Exerc. 34: 449-455, 2002.
STRATEGIES: Effect of 3-d diet on metabolism

“Optimal performance in endurance

and ultra-endurance events might be
obtained if an athlete trains for most
of the year on a high-CHO diet, then
undergoes a short-term period of fat-
adaptation followed by the traditional
CHO-loading regimen in the final
days before an event. Nutritional
periodisation for ultra-endurance
events should aim to enhance the
contribution from fat to oxidative
energy metabolism, thus potentially
sparing endogenous carbohydrate
stores.”
Hawley JA et al. Sports Med. 25: 241-257, 1998
 Overview of Experimental Protocol: Burke et al. 2000

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

LAB Easy ride Hills HIT Easy ride LAB EXP

HIT 3-4 h 2-3 h 3-4 h

High-CHO or High-Fat diet LAB 20 min @ 70% VO2max

High-CHO diet (11 g/kg BM) HIT 8 x 5 min @ 85% VO2max
Experimental trial (2 h @ 70% VO2max then 7 kJ/kg BM time-trial)
Fuel metabolism during 2 h cycling at 70% VO 2max

100
Energy expenditure (%)

Glucose Glucose
80
Muscle
60 Muscle glycogen *
glycogen
40

20 Fat *
Fat
HIGH-CHO HIGH-FAT
Burke LM et al. J. Appl. Physiol. 89: 2413-2421, 2000.
 TIME-TRIAL PERFORMANCE AFTER
Time trial performance after 2 h cycling at 70% VO 2max
2 HR CYCLING AT 70% VO2max
50
Time to complete 7 kJ/kg BM

40

30
(min)

20 34:10 30:44
±2:37 ±1:07
10

HIGH-CHO HIGH-FAT

Burke LM et al. J. Appl. Physiol. 89: 2413-2421, 2000.

 Effect of fat adaptation (6-d) on gene expression

50
FAT/CD36 (Arbitrary units)

*
40

30

20

10

PRE HIGH-CHO HIGH-FAT

 Conclusions: Burke et al. 2000

1. Five days exposure to a high-fat, low-CHO diet caused marked

changes in fuel substrate oxidation during 2 h of submaximal
exercise at 70% of VO2max
 Conclusions: Burke et al. 2000

1. Five days exposure to a high-fat, low-CHO diet caused marked

changes in fuel substrate oxidation during 2 h of submaximal
exercise at 70% of VO2max
2. These changes were independent of CHO availability because
enhanced rates of fat oxidation persisted despite the restoration
of muscle glycogen stores
 Conclusions: Burke et al. 2000

1. Five days exposure to a high-fat, low-CHO diet caused marked

changes in fuel substrate oxidation during 2 h of submaximal
exercise at 70% of VO2max
2. These changes were independent of CHO availability because
enhanced rates of fat oxidation persisted despite the restoration
of muscle glycogen stores
3. Despite promoting “glycogen sparing” during submaximal
exercise, fat-adaptation strategies did not provide a clear benefit
to the performance of a 30 min time-trial undertaken after
2 h of continuous cycling at 70% of VO2max
 Conclusions: Burke et al. 2000

1. Five days exposure to a high-fat, low-CHO diet caused marked

changes in fuel substrate oxidation during 2 h of submaximal
exercise at 70% of VO2max
2. These changes were independent of CHO availability because
enhanced rates of fat oxidation persisted despite the restoration
of muscle glycogen stores
3. Despite promoting “glycogen sparing” during submaximal
exercise, fat-adaptation strategies did not provide a clear
benefit to the performance of a 30 min time-trial undertaken
after 2 h of continuous cycling at 70% of VO2max
4. The results of this study do not support the use of fat-adaptation
strategies by endurance athletes competing in events lasting
2-3 h in duration
FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE
REPLACEMENT
WATER BALANCE: NORMAL

2500

2000 Metab
Food
1500 Fluids
Stool
1000 Breath
Sweat
Urine
500

0
Output Intake
WATER OUTPUT:
NORMAL VS.EXERCISE

5000

4000
Stool
3000
Breath
Sweat
2000
Urine

1000

0
Normal Exercise
WATER INTAKE:
NORMAL VS EXERCISE

5000

4000

3000 Metab
Food
2000 Fluids

1000

0
Normal Exercise
 Athletes greatly increase their water loss
IN COMPARISON TO NON-ATHLETES:
 Large increases in sweat loss
 Some decreases in urine loss

 Athletes need to greatly increase water

intake
 Large increases in fluid consumption
 Smaller increases in food water and
metabolic water
 Athletes often fail to consume adequate
amounts of fluids to maintain optimal
hydration status
70kg subject, running 1 hr
900 Cal expended
mechanical efficiency =
20%
180 Cal movement, 720
Cal heat

HEAT AND SWEAT PRODUCTION

DURING EXERCISE
body specific heat =
0.83Cal/kg/deg
780 Cal -> 12.4 deg C
= 22 deg F
death

HEAT AND SWEAT PRODUCTION

DURING EXERCISE
Evaporate 1 liter sweat =
580 Cal heat
720 Cal heat = evaporates
1.24 liters of sweat
Real conditions, approx. 2
liters or 4.4 pounds of water
loss

HEAT AND SWEAT PRODUCTION

DURING EXERCISE
2-4% wt loss - reduced
muscular endurance time
4-6% wt loss - reduced
muscular strength &
endurance, heat cramps
> 6% wt loss - severe heat
cramps, heat exhaustion,
heat stroke, coma, death

EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION ON
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION
 NATA Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for
Athletes
 J. Athletic Training 35:212-224 (2000)
 “Athletes do not voluntarily drink sufficient water to
prevent dehydation during physical activity.”
 Thirst is a delayed response to dehydration.
Thirsty athletes are already dehydrated.

STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING

DEHYDRATION
 SPORTS NUTRITION EXAM –
 Format
FRIDAY, MAY 5
 multiple choice/true false
 Short essay (2 – 2.5 pages)
 Hypothetical case study
 calculate exchange diet
 Calculate fluid replacement needs
 During exercise, after exercise (rehydration)
 Bring calculator and pencils (no cell phone calculators)
 Required readings
 ADA/ACSM Position Paper: Sports Nutrition
 Williams textbook
 STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING
DEHYDRATION
 Establish a hydration protocol for athletes

 Determine individual sweat rate

 Changes in body weight (pre-post weighings)
 1 pound = 1 pint additional fluids during exercise
 May also account for urine volume
 Goal: no weight loss (or < 2% wt loss)

 Urine color or urine specific gravity

 STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING
DEHYDRATION
Emphasize continual fluid replacement
 Replace fluids as they are lost
 Practice fluid replacement
 Gradually increase fluids
 Body adapts to increase fluid consumption
 Generally, cold fluids more rapidly absorbed
 Use individual clear bottles for visual monitoring
 Old Rule of Thumb:
 0.5-1 cup per 10-15 min
 Individualize is far better
STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING
DEHYDRATION
 Understand each athlete’s sport dynamics
 Rest breaks/time outs
 Fluid accessibility
 Establish athlete’s acclimatized state
 Non-Acclimatized athletes
 sweat more
 lose more electrolytes
 STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING
DEHYDRATION

 Anticipate
high risk conditions
 High temperature
 Uniform/clothing effects
 High humidity
 Indoor sports
 Uniform/clothing effects
 Low air movement
 Uniform/clothing effects
 Bright sun
 Dark colored clothing
 STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING
DEHYDRATION
 Hyperhydration
 1 pint, 15-30 minutes prior to exercise
 Limited benefits

 Post-exercise rehydration
 Ideally completed within 2 hrs
 1 pound wt loss = 1.5-2 pts fluid replacement
 ACSM/ADA rec: 16-24 oz per pound weight loss
 1-1.5 pts per pound weight loss
 Replace CHO and electrolytes at same time to
speed rehydration