Lecture 5 Statistics

Chapter Outline
• Basic Concepts of Probability

• Conditional Probability and the Multiplication
Rule
• The Addition Rule
• Additional Topics in Probability and Counting
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 of 88

Basic Concepts of
Probability

Objectives
• Identify the sample space of a probability experiment

• Identify simple events
• Use the Fundamental Counting Principle
• Distinguish among classical probability, empirical
probability, and subjective probability
• Determine the probability of the complement of an
event
• Use a tree diagram and the Fundamental Counting
Principle to find probabilities

Probability Experiments
Probability experiment
• An action, or trial, through which specific results (counts,
measurements, or responses) are obtained.
Outcome
• The result of a single trial in a probability experiment.
Sample Space
• The set of all possible outcomes of a probability
experiment.
Event
• Consists of one or more outcomes and is a subset of the
sample space.
Probability Experiments
• Probability experiment: Roll a die
• Outcome: {3}
• Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
• Event: {Die is even}={2, 4, 6}

Example: Identifying the Sample Space
A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and

then rolling a six-sided die. Describe the sample space.
Solution:
There are two possible outcomes when tossing a coin:
a head (H) or a tail (T). For each of these, there are six
possible outcomes when rolling a die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or
6. One way to list outcomes for actions occurring in a
sequence is to use a tree diagram.

Solution: Identifying the Sample Space
Tree diagram:
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
The sample space has 12 outcomes:

{H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}

Simple Events
Simple event
• An event that consists of a single outcome.
 e.g. “Tossing heads and rolling a 3” {H3}
• An event that consists of more than one outcome is

not a simple event.
 e.g. “Tossing heads and rolling an even number”
{H2, H4, H6}

Example: Identifying Simple Events
Determine whether the event is simple or not.

• You roll a six-sided die. Event B is rolling at least a 4.
Solution:
Not simple (event B has three outcomes: rolling a 4, a 5,
or a 6)

Fundamental Counting Principle

• If one event can occur in m ways and a second event
can occur in n ways, the number of ways the two
events can occur in sequence is m•n.
• Can be extended for any number of events occurring
in sequence.

Example: Fundamental Counting
Principle
You are purchasing a new car. The possible
manufacturers, car sizes, and colors are listed.
Manufacturer: Ford, GM, Honda
Car size: compact, midsize
Color: white (W), red (R), black (B), green (G)
How many different ways can you select one
manufacturer, one car size, and one color? Use a tree
diagram to check your result.

Solution: Fundamental Counting
Principle
There are three choices of manufacturers, two car sizes,
and four colors.
Using the Fundamental Counting Principle:
3 ∙ 2 ∙ 4 = 24 ways

Types of Probability
Classical (theoretical) Probability

• Each outcome in a sample space is equally likely.
Number of outcomes in event E

• P( E ) 
Number of outcomes in sample space

Example: Finding Classical Probabilities
You roll a six-sided die. Find the probability of each
event.
1. Event A: rolling a 3
2. Event B: rolling a 7
3. Event C: rolling a number less than 5
Solution:
Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Solution: Finding Classical Probabilities
1. Event A: rolling a 3 Event A = {3}

1
P(rolling a 3)   0.167
6
2. Event B: rolling a 7 Event B= { } (7 is not in
0 the sample space)
P(rolling a 7)   0
6
3. Event C: rolling a number less than 5
Event C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
4
P(rolling a number less than 5)   0.667
6
Empirical (statistical) Probability

• Based on observations obtained from probability
experiments.
• Relative frequency of an event.
Frequency of event E f
• P( E )  
Total frequency n

Example: Finding Empirical Probabilities
1. A company is conducting a telephone survey of
randomly selected individuals to get their overall
impressions of the past decade (2000s). So far, 1504
people have been surveyed. What is the probability
that the next person surveyed has a positive overall
impression of the 2000s? (Source: Princeton Survey
Research Associates International)
Response Number of times, f
Positive 406
Negative 752
Neither 316
Don’t know 30
Σf = 1504
Solution: Finding Empirical Probabilities
Response Number of times, f

event Positive 406 frequency
Negative 752
Neither 316
Don’t know 30
Σf = 320
f 406
P( positive)    0.270
n 1504

Law of Large Numbers
Law of Large Numbers
• As an experiment is repeated over and over, the
empirical probability of an event approaches the
theoretical (actual) probability of the event.

Subjective Probability
• Intuition, educated guesses, and estimates.
• e.g. A doctor may feel a patient has a 90% chance of a
full recovery.

Example: Classifying Types of Probability
Classify the statement as an example of classical,

empirical, or subjective probability.
1. The probability that you will get the flu this
year is 0.1.
Solution:
Subjective probability (most likely an educated guess)


2. The probability that a voter chosen at random will be
younger than 35 years old is 0.3.
Solution:
Empirical probability (most likely based on a survey)


3. The probability of winning a 1000-ticket raffle with
1
one ticket is 1000 .
Solution:
Classical probability (equally likely outcomes)

Range of Probabilities Rule
Range of probabilities rule

• The probability of an event E is between 0 and 1,
inclusive.
• 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
Even
Impossible Unlikely chance Likely Certain
[ ]
0 0.5 1

Complementary Events
Complement of event E
• The set of all outcomes in a sample space that are not
included in event E.
• Denoted E ′ (E prime)
• P(E) + P(E ′) = 1
• P(E) = 1 – P(E ′) E′
• P(E ′) = 1 – P(E) E

Example: Probability of the Complement
of an Event
You survey a sample of 1000 employees at a company
and record the age of each. Find the probability of
randomly choosing an employee who is not between 25
and 34 years old. Employee ages Frequency, f
15 to 24 54
25 to 34 366
35 to 44 233
45 to 54 180
55 to 64 125
65 and over 42
Σf = 1000
Solution: Probability of the Complement
of an Event
• Use empirical probability to Employee ages Frequency, f
find P(age 25 to 34) 15 to 24 54
25 to 34 366
f 366
P(age 25 to 34)    0.366 35 to 44 233
n 1000 45 to 54 180
55 to 64 125
• Use the complement rule 65 and over 42
366 Σf = 1000
P(age is not 25 to 34)  1 
1000
634
  0.634
1000

Example: Probability Using a Tree
Diagram
A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and
spinning the spinner shown. The spinner is equally
likely to land on each number. Use a tree diagram to
find the probability of tossing a tail and spinning an odd
number.

Solution: Probability Using a Tree
Diagram
Tree Diagram:
H T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
4 1
P(tossing a tail and spinning an odd number) =   0.25
16 4

Example: Probability Using the
Your college identification number consists of 8 digits.
Each digit can be 0 through 9 and each digit can be
repeated. What is the probability of getting your college
identification number when randomly generating eight
digits?

Solution: Probability Using the
• Each digit can be repeated
• There are 10 choices for each of the 8 digits
• Using the Fundamental Counting Principle, there are
10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10
= 108 = 100,000,000 possible identification numbers
• Only one of those numbers corresponds to your ID
number
1
P(your ID number) =
100, 000, 000

Summary
• Identified the sample space of a probability

experiment
• Identified simple events
• Used the Fundamental Counting Principle
• Distinguished among classical probability, empirical
probability, and subjective probability
• Determined the probability of the complement of an
event
• Used a tree diagram and the Fundamental Counting
Principle to find probabilities
Conditional Probability and
the Multiplication Rule

Objectives
• Determine conditional probabilities

• Distinguish between independent and dependent
events
• Use the Multiplication Rule to find the probability of
two events occurring in sequence
• Use the Multiplication Rule to find conditional
probabilities

Conditional Probability
Conditional Probability
• The probability of an event occurring, given that
another event has already occurred
• Denoted P(B | A) (read “probability of B, given A”)

Example: Finding Conditional
Probabilities
Two cards are selected in sequence from a standard
deck. Find the probability that the second card is a
queen, given that the first card is a king. (Assume that
the king is not replaced.)

Probabilities
Two cards are selected in sequence from a standard
deck. Find the probability that the second card is a
queen, given that the first card is a king. (Assume that
the king is not replaced.)
Solution:
Because the first card is a king and is not replaced, the
remaining deck has 51 cards, 4 of which are queens.
4
P( B | A)  P(2 card is a Queen |1 card is a King ) 
nd st
 0.078
51

Probabilities
The table shows the results of a study in which
researchers examined a child’s IQ and the presence of a
specific gene in the child. Find the probability that a
child has a high IQ, given that the child has the gene.
Gene Gene not
Present present Total
High IQ 33 19 52
Normal IQ 39 11 50
Total 72 30 102

Solution: Finding Conditional
Probabilities
There are 72 children who have the gene. So, the
sample space consists of these 72 children.
Gene Gene not
Present present Total
High IQ 33 19 52
Normal IQ 39 11 50
Total 72 30 102
Of these, 33 have a high IQ.

33
P(B | A)  P(high IQ | gene present )   0.458
72

Independent and Dependent Events
Independent events
• The occurrence of one of the events does not affect
the probability of the occurrence of the other event
• P(B | A) = P(B) or P(A | B) = P(A)
• Events that are not independent are dependent

Example: Independent and Dependent
Events
Decide whether the events are independent or dependent.
1. Selecting a king from a standard deck (A), not
replacing it, and then selecting a queen from the deck
(B).
Solution:
4
P( B | A)  P(2nd card is a Queen |1st card is a King ) 
51
4
P( B)  P(Queen) 
52
Dependent (the occurrence of A changes the probability
of the occurrence of B)
Example: Independent and Dependent
Events
Decide whether the events are independent or dependent.
2. Tossing a coin and getting a head (A), and then
rolling a six-sided die and obtaining a 6 (B).
Solution:
1
P( B | A)  P(rolling a 6 | head on coin) 
6
1
P( B)  P(rolling a 6) 
6
Independent (the occurrence of A does not change the

probability of the occurrence of B)
The Multiplication Rule
Multiplication rule for the probability of A and B

• The probability that two events A and B will occur in
sequence is
 P(A and B) = P(A) ∙ P(B | A)
• For independent events the rule can be simplified to
 P(A and B) = P(A) ∙ P(B)
 Can be extended for any number of independent
events

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
Two cards are selected, without replacing the first card,

from a standard deck. Find the probability of selecting a
king and then selecting a queen.

Two cards are selected, without replacing the first card,

from a standard deck. Find the probability of selecting a
king and then selecting a queen.
Solution:
Because the first card is not replaced, the events are
dependent.
P( K and Q)  P( K )  P(Q | K )
4 4
 
52 51
16
  0.006
2652
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the probability

of getting a head and then rolling a 6.

A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the probability

of getting a head and then rolling a 6.
Solution:
The outcome of the coin does not affect the probability
of rolling a 6 on the die. These two events are
independent.
P( H and 6)  P( H )  P(6)
1 1
 
2 6
1
  0.083
12
The probability that a particular knee surgery is

successful is 0.85. Find the probability that three knee
surgeries are successful.

The probability that a particular knee surgery is

successful is 0.85. Find the probability that three knee
surgeries are successful.
Solution:
The probability that each knee surgery is successful is
0.85. The chance for success for one surgery is
independent of the chances for the other surgeries.
P(3 surgeries are successful) = (0.85)(0.85)(0.85)
≈ 0.614
Find the probability that none of the three knee

surgeries is successful.

Find the probability that none of the three knee

Solution:
Because the probability of success for one surgery is
0.85. The probability of failure for one surgery is
1 – 0.85 = 0.15
P(none of the 3 surgeries is successful) = (0.15)(0.15)(0.15)
≈ 0.003

Find the probability that at least one of the three knee


Find the probability that at least one of the three knee

Solution:
“At least one” means one or more. The complement to
the event “at least one is successful” is the event “none
are successful.” Using the complement rule
P(at least 1 is successful) = 1 – P(none are successful)
≈ 1 – 0.003
= 0.997
Example: Using the Multiplication Rule to
Find Probabilities
More than 15,000 U.S. medical school seniors applied to
residency programs in 2009. Of those, 93% were matched
with residency positions. Eighty-two percent of the seniors
matched with residency positions were matched with one of
their top three choices. Medical students electronically rank
the residency programs in their order of preference, and
program directors across the United States do the same. The
term “match” refers to the process where a student’s
preference list and a program director’s preference list
overlap, resulting in the placement of the student for a
residency position. (Source: National Resident Matching
Program) (continued)
Find Probabilities
1. Find the probability that a randomly selected senior was
matched with a residency position and it was one of the
senior’s top three choices.

Find Probabilities
1. Find the probability that a randomly selected senior was
matched with a residency position and it was one of the
senior’s top three choices.
Solution:
A = {matched with residency position}
B = {matched with one of top three choices}
P(A) = 0.93 and P(B | A) = 0.82
P(A and B) = P(A)∙P(B | A) = (0.93)(0.82) ≈ 0.763
dependent events

Find Probabilities
2. Find the probability that a randomly selected senior who
was matched with a residency position did not get
matched with one of the senior’s top three choices.

Find Probabilities
2. Find the probability that a randomly selected senior who
was matched with a residency position did not get
matched with one of the senior’s top three choices.
Solution:
Use the complement:
P(B′ | A) = 1 – P(B | A)
= 1 – 0.82 = 0.18

Summary
• Determined conditional probabilities

• Distinguished between independent and dependent
events
• Used the Multiplication Rule to find the probability
of two events occurring in sequence
• Used the Multiplication Rule to find conditional
probabilities

Addition Rule

Objectives
• Determine if two events are mutually exclusive

• Use the Addition Rule to find the probability of two
events

Mutually Exclusive Events
Mutually exclusive
• Two events A and B cannot occur at the same time
A
A B
B
A and B are mutually A and B are not mutually

exclusive exclusive

Example: Mutually Exclusive Events
Decide if the events are mutually exclusive.

Event A: Roll a 3 on a die.
Event B: Roll a 4 on a die.
Solution:
Mutually exclusive (The first event has one outcome, a
3. The second event also has one outcome, a 4. These
outcomes cannot occur at the same time.)

Example: Mutually Exclusive Events
Decide if the events are mutually exclusive.

Event A: Randomly select a male student.
Event B: Randomly select a nursing major.
Solution:
Not mutually exclusive (The student can be a male
nursing major.)

The Addition Rule
Addition rule for the probability of A or B

• The probability that events A or B will occur is
 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
• For mutually exclusive events A and B, the rule can
be simplified to
 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
 Can be extended to any number of mutually
exclusive events

Example: Using the Addition Rule
You select a card from a standard deck. Find the

probability that the card is a 4 or an ace.

You select a card from a standard deck. Find the

probability that the card is a 4 or an ace.
Solution:
The events are mutually exclusive (if the card is a 4, it
cannot be an ace) Deck of 52 Cards
P(4 or ace)  P(4)  P(ace) 4♣
4 4 4♥
  4♠ A♣
52 52 4♦ A♠ A♥
8 A♦
  0.154 44 other cards
52
You roll a die. Find the probability of rolling a number

less than 3 or rolling an odd number.
Solution:
The events are not mutually exclusive (1 is an
outcome of both events) Roll a Die
4 6
Odd Less than
3 1 three
5 2

Solution: Using the Addition Rule
Roll a Die
4 6
Odd Less than
3 1 three
5 2
P(less than 3 or odd )

 P(less than 3)  P (odd )  P (less than 3 and odd )
2 3 1 4
     0.667
6 6 6 6
The frequency distribution shows
Sales volume ($) Months
the volume of sales (in dollars)
0–24,999 3
and the number of months in
25,000–49,999 5
which a sales representative
50,000–74,999 6
reached each sales level during 75,000–99,999 7
the past three years. If this sales 100,000–124,999 9
pattern continues, what is the 125,000–149,999 2
probability that the sales 150,000–174,999 3
representative will sell between 175,000–199,999 1
$75,000 and $124,999 next
month?
• A = monthly sales between Sales volume ($) Months

$75,000 and $99,999 0–24,999 3
• B = monthly sales between 25,000–49,999 5
$100,000 and $124,999 50,000–74,999 6
• A and B are mutually exclusive 75,000–99,999 7

100,000–124,999 9
P( A or B)  P( A)  P( B) 125,000–149,999 2
7 9 150,000–174,999 3
 
36 36 175,000–199,999 1
16
  0.444
36
A blood bank catalogs the types of blood, including
positive or negative Rh-factor, given by donors during
the last five days. A donor is selected at random. Find
the probability that the donor has type O or type A
blood.
Type O Type A Type B Type AB Total

Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344
Rh-Negative 28 25 8 4 65
Total 184 164 45 16 409

The events are mutually exclusive (a donor cannot have

type O blood and type A blood)
Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344
Total 184 164 45 16 409
P(type O or type A)  P(type O )  P(type A)

184 164
 
409 409
348
  0.851
409
Find the probability that the donor has type B blood or

is Rh-negative.
Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344
Total 184 164 45 16 409
Solution:
The events are not mutually exclusive (a donor can have
type B blood and be Rh-negative)


Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344
Total 184 164 45 16 409
P(type B or Rh  neg)
 P(type B)  P(Rh  neg)  P(type B and Rh  neg)
45 65 8 102
     0.249
409 409 409 409

Summary
• Determined if two events are mutually exclusive

• Used the Addition Rule to find the probability of two
events

Additional Topics in
Probability and Counting

Objectives
• Determine the number of ways a group of objects can

be arranged in order
• Determine the number of ways to choose several
objects from a group without regard to order
• Use the counting principles to find probabilities

Permutations
Permutation
• An ordered arrangement of objects
• The number of different permutations of n distinct
objects is n! (n factorial)
 n! = n∙(n – 1)∙(n – 2)∙(n – 3)∙ ∙ ∙3∙2 ∙1
 0! = 1
 Examples:
• 6! = 6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1 = 720
• 4! = 4∙3∙2∙1 = 24

Example: Permutation of n Objects
The objective of a 9 x 9 Sudoku number

puzzle is to fill the grid so that each
row, each column, and each 3 x 3 grid
contain the digits 1 to 9. How many
different ways can the first row of a
blank 9 x 9 Sudoku grid be filled?
Solution:
The number of permutations is
9!= 9∙8∙7∙6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1 = 362,880 ways

Permutations
Permutation of n objects taken r at a time

• The number of different permutations of n distinct
objects taken r at a time
n!
n Pr 
■ where r ≤ n
(n  r )!

Example: Finding nPr
Find the number of ways of forming four-digit codes in
which no digit is repeated.
Solution:
• You need to select 4 digits from a group of 10
• n = 10, r = 4
10! 10!
10 P4  
(10  4)! 6!
10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

6  5  4  3  2 1
 5040 ways
Example: Finding nPr
Forty-three race cars started the 2007 Daytona 500.
How many ways can the cars finish first, second, and
third?
Solution:
• You need to select 3 cars from a group of 43
• n = 43, r = 3
43! 43!
43 P3  
(43  3)! 40!
 43  42  41
 74, 046 ways

Distinguishable Permutations
Distinguishable Permutations
• The number of distinguishable permutations of n
objects where n1 are of one type, n2 are of another
type, and so on
■ n!
n1 ! n2 ! n3 !   nk !
where n1 + n2 + n3 +∙∙∙+ nk = n

Example: Distinguishable Permutations
A building contractor is planning to develop a
subdivision that consists of 6 one-story houses, 4 two-
story houses, and 2 split-level houses. In how many
distinguishable ways can the houses be arranged?
Solution:
• There are 12 houses in the subdivision
• n = 12, n1 = 6, n2 = 4, n3 = 2
12!
6! 4! 2!
 13,860 distinguishable ways

Combinations
Combination of n objects taken r at a time

• A selection of r objects from a group of n objects
without regard to order
■ C 
n!
(n  r )!r !
n r

Example: Combinations
A state’s department of transportation plans to develop a
new section of interstate highway and receives 16 bids
for the project. The state plans to hire four of the
bidding companies. How many different combinations
of four companies can be selected from the 16 bidding
companies?
Solution:
• You need to select 4 companies from a group of 16
• n = 16, r = 4
• Order is not important

Solution: Combinations
16!
16 C4 
(16  4)!4!
16!

12!4!
16 15 14 13 12!

12! 4  3  2 1
 1820 different combinations

Example: Finding Probabilities
A student advisory board consists of 17 members. Three

members serve as the board’s chair, secretary, and
webmaster. Each member is equally likely to serve any
of the positions. What is the probability of selecting at
random the three members that hold each position?

Solution: Finding Probabilities
• There is only one favorable outcome

• There are
17!
17 P3 
(17  3)!
17!
  17 16 15  4080
14!
ways the three positions can be filled
1
P( selecting the 3 members)   0.0002
4080

You have 11 letters consisting of one M, four I’s, four

S’s, and two P’s. If the letters are randomly arranged in
order, what is the probability that the arrangement spells
the word Mississippi?

• There is only one favorable outcome

• There are
11!
 34, 650 11 letters with 1,4,4, and 2
1! 4! 4! 2! like letters
distinguishable permutations of the given letters
1
P( Mississippi)  0.00003
34650

A food manufacturer is analyzing a sample of 400 corn

kernels for the presence of a toxin. In this sample, three
kernels have dangerously high levels of the toxin. If
four kernels are randomly selected from the sample,
what is the probability that exactly one kernel contains a
dangerously high level of the toxin?

• The possible number of ways of choosing one toxic
kernel out of three toxic kernels is
3C1 = 3
• The possible number of ways of choosing three
nontoxic kernels from 397 nontoxic kernels is
397C3 = 10,349,790
• Using the Multiplication Rule, the number of ways of
choosing one toxic kernel and three nontoxic kernels
is
3C1 ∙ 397C3 = 3 ∙ 10,349,790 3 = 31,049,370

• The number of possible ways of choosing 4 kernels

from 400 kernels is
400C4 = 1,050,739,900
• The probability of selecting exactly 1 toxic kernel is
C  C
P(1 toxic kernel)  3 1 397 3
C
400 4
31,049,370
  0.030
1,050,739,900

Summary
• Determined the number of ways a group of objects

can be arranged in order
• Determined the number of ways to choose several
objects from a group without regard to order
• Used the counting principles to find probabilities

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Chapter Outline

• Basic Concepts of Probability

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 of 88

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 of 88

• Identify the sample space of a probability experiment

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• Probability experiment: Roll a die

• Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

• Event: {Die is even}={2, 4, 6}

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A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and

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The sample space has 12 outcomes:

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• An event that consists of more than one outcome is

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Determine whether the event is simple or not.

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Fundamental Counting Principle

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Classical (theoretical) Probability

Number of outcomes in event E

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1. Event A: rolling a 3 Event A = {3}

Empirical (statistical) Probability

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Response Number of times, f

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Classify the statement as an example of classical,

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Classify the statement as an example of classical,

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Classify the statement as an example of classical,

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Range of probabilities rule

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• Identified the sample space of a probability

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• Determine conditional probabilities

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Of these, 33 have a high IQ.

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Independent (the occurrence of A does not change the

Multiplication rule for the probability of A and B

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Two cards are selected, without replacing the first card,

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