INTRODUCTION

Rainfall is the primary source of water for runoff

generation over the land surface.

Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation

from a catchment area through a surface channel. Rainfall-
runoff relations are very important in hydrology.
Rainfall-Runoff

How does runoff occur?

When rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate at the

surface, excess water begins to accumulate as surface
storage in small depressions. As depression storage begins to
fill, overland flow or sheet flow may begin to occur and this
flow is called as “Surface runoff”
 Components of Runoff

Overland Flow or Surface Runoff: The water that travels over the
ground surface to a channel. The amount of surface runoff flow
may be small since it may only occur over a permeable soil surface
when the rainfall rate exceeds the local infiltration capacity.

Surface Runoff- the flow in this mode, where it travels all the time over
the surface as overland flow and through the channels as open-channel
flow and reaches the catchment outlet.
Interflow: The precipitation that infiltrates the soil surface and
move laterally through the upper soil layers until it enters a
stream channel.

Part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally

through upper crusts of the soil and returns to the surface at
some location away from the point of entry into the soil.

Also known as through flow, storm seepage, subsurface

storm flow or quick return low.
Groundwater Flow or Base Flow: The portion of precipitation that
percolates downward until it reaches the water table. This water
accretion may eventually discharge into the streams if the water
table intersects the stream channels of the basin. However, its
contribution to stream flow cannot fluctuate rapidly because of its
very low flow velocity
-Provides the dry-weather flow in perennial streams.

Interception, depression storage, soil moisture are

LOSSES for streamflow.
Runoff is classified into two categories:
1. Direct runoff
2.Base flow

Direct Runoff
It is part of the runoff which enters the stream
immediately after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt
interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream. In the case of
snow-melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is also a direct
runoff. Direct storm runoff and storm runoff are used to designate
direct runoff.
Base Flow

The delayed flow that reaches a stream

essentially as groundwater. Delayed interflow is also
included under this category. In the annual hydrograph of
a perennial stream, the base flow is easily recognized as
the slowly decreasing flow of the stream in rainless
period.
Natural Flow

True runoff is therefore stream low in its natural

condition, i.e. without human intervention. Such a stream
flow unaffected by works of man, such as reservoir and
diversion structures on a stream, is called natural flow or
virgin flow.
 The natural flow (virgin low) volume in time Δt at the
terminal point of a catchment is expressed by water balance
equation as:

where:
𝑅𝑁 =Natural flow volume in time Δt
𝑅𝑂 =Observed flow volume in time Δt at the terminal site
𝑉𝑟 =Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and
industrial use
𝑉𝑑 =Volume diverted out of the stream for irrigation, domestic water
supply and industrial use
E =net evaporation losses from reservoirs on the stream
𝐸𝑋 = Net export of water from the basin
ΔS =Change in the storage volumes of water storage bodies on the stream
Example:
The following table gives values of measured discharge at a stream-
gauging site in a year. Upstream of the gauging site a weir built across the
stream diverts 3.0 M𝑚3 and 0.50 M𝑚3 of water per month for irrigation and
for use in an industry respectively. The return flows from the irrigation is
estimated as 0.8 M𝑚3 and from the industry at 0.30 M𝑚3 reaching the stream
upstream of the gauging site. Estimate the natural flow. If the catchment area is
180 k𝑚3 and the average annual rainfall is 185 cm, determine the runoff-
rainfall ratio.

Solution:
Using
E, 𝐸𝑋 , ΔS are assumed to be insignificant and zero value.
𝑉𝑟 =Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and
industrial use= 0.80 + 0.30= 1.10 M𝑚3
𝑉𝑑 =Volume diverted out of the stream for irrigation, domestic water
supply and industrial use=3.0 + 0.5=3.5 M𝑚3
The calculation are shown in the following Table:

Annual natural flow volume=Annual runoff volume= 116.8 M𝑚3

Area o the catchment= 180 k𝑚3 = 1.80x108
1.168 𝑥108
Annual runoff depth= = 0.649 m =64.9 cm
1.80x108
Annual rainfall = 185 cm

𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 64.9
= = 0.35
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 185
 A study of the annual hydrographs so streams
enables one to classify streams into three classes:
1.perennial
2. intermittent

3. ephemeral
 Perennial Stream-is one which always carries
some flow. There is considerable amount of
groundwater flow throughout the year. Even during the
dry seasons the water table will be above the bed off
the stream.
 Intermittent Stream- has limited contribution from
the groundwater. During the wet season the water table is
above the stream bed and there is a contribution of the base
flow to the stream flow. However, during dry season the
water tale drops to a level lower than that of the stream bed
and the stream dries up.
 Ephemeral Stream-one which does not have any base-
flow contribution. The annual hydrograph of such a river shows
series of short-duration spikes marking flash flows in response to
storms. The stream becomes dry soon after the end of the storm
flow.
 The flow characteristics of a stream depend upon:

• The rainfall characteristics, such as magnitude intensity,

distribution according to time and space, and its
variability.

• Catchment characteristics such as soil, land use/cover,

slope, geology, shape and drainage density.

• Climatic factors which influence evapotranspiration.

Hydrograph analysis

A hydrograph is a continuous plot of instantaneous

discharge v/s time. It results from a combination of
physiographic and meteorological conditions in a watershed
and represents the integrated effects of climate, hydrologic
losses, surface runoff, interflow, and ground water flow.
 Detailed analysis of hydrographs is usually
important in flood damage mitigation, flood
forecasting, or establishing design flows for structures
that convey floodwaters.
* Hydrograph relations
The typical hydrograph is characterized by
1.Rising limb
2.Crest
3.Falling limb
 Rising limb of hydrograph-also known as concentration
curve represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual
building up of storage in channels and over the catchment
surface.

Crest segment-one of the most important parts of a

hydrograph as it contains the peak flow.
 Falling limb/ depletion curve-extends from point of
inflection at the crest segment to the commencement of the
natural groundwater flow represents the withdrawal of water
from the storage built up in the basin during the earlier phases
of the hydrograph.
 The factors that affect shape of the hydrograph can e
grouped into climatic factors and physiographic factors.
 -it influences the time taken for water from the
remote parts of the catchment to arrive at the outlet.

Catchment A-the hydrograph is skewed to the left,i.e.,the peak occur relative loner lag.
Catchment B- the hydrograph is skewed to the right, the peak occurring with a relatively
longer lag.
Catchment C-indicates the complex hydrograph produced y a composite shape.
 Small basins behave different from the large ones in
terms of the relative importance of various phases of the runoff
phenomenon.

The peak discharge is found to vary as 𝐴𝑛 where A is the

catchment area and n is an exponent whose value is less than
unity, being about 0.5.

The duration of the surface runoff from the time of

occurrence of the peak is proportional to 𝐴𝑚 ,where m is an
exponent less than unity and is of the order of magnitude of
0.2.
 The slope of the main stream controls the velocity of
flow in the channel. As the recession limb of the hydrograph
represents the depletion of storage, the stream channel slope
will have a pronounced effect on this part of the hydrograph.

The basin slope is important in small catchments

where the overland flow is relatively more important.
The ratio of the total channel length to the total drainage area.

In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is

predominant and the resulting hydrograph is squat with a slowly
rising limb.
 Vegetation and forests increase the infiltration and storage
capacities off the soils.

Among climate factors the intensity, duration and direction of

storm movement are the three important ones affecting the shape of a
flood hydrograph.
Base flow Separation Methods

There are three types of base flow separation techniques

1.Straight line method
2.Fixed base method
3.Constant slope method
1.Method 1-Straight line method

In this method the separation of the base flow is achieved

by joining with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to
a point on the recession limb representing the end of the direct
runoff.
The empirical equation for the time interval N9
(days) from the peak to the point is:
N=0.83𝐴0.2
Where:
A=drainage area in km2
N=days
Point A and B are joined by a straight line to demarcate to the base
flow and surface runoff.

This method of base-flow separation is the simplest of all the three

methods.
 2. Method 2- Fixed base method

In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the

commencement of the surface runoff is extended till it intersects the
ordinate drawn at the peak. This is probably the most widely used
base-flow separation procedure.

This point is joined to point B y a straight line. Segment AC and C demarcate

the base flow and surface runoff.
3. Method 3- Constant slope method

In this method the base flow recession curve after the

depletion of the flood water is extended backwards till it intersects the
ordinate at the point of inflection.

Point A and F are joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. The

three methods of base-flow separation are rather arbitrary.

The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after base-flow

separation is also known as direct runoff hydrograph (DRH).
 Effective rainfall (excess rainfall)(ER)-part of the rainfall
that becomes direct runoff at the outlet of the watershed. The total
rainfall in a given duration from which abstractions such as
infiltration and initial losses are subtracted. ER could be defined
as that rainfall that is neither retained on the land surface nor
infiltrated into the soil.

The resulting hyetograph is known as effective rainfall

hyetograph (ERH). It is also known as excess rainfall hyetograph.
Example:
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8 cm and 2.8 cm occurring on two
consecutive 4-h durations on a catchment of area 27 km2 produced the
following hydrograph of flow at the outlet of the catchment. Estimate the
rainfall excess and φ index.

Solution:
Base flow separation:
Using Simple straight line method,
N = 0.83 A0.2 = 0.83 (27)0.2
= 1.6 days = 38.5 h
However, y inspection, DHR starts at t=0, has the peak at t=12h and ends at t=48h
(N=48-12=36). As N=36h appears to be more satisfactory than N=38.5h, in the
present case DRH is assumed to exist from t=0 to 48h. A straight line base flow
separation gives a constant value of 5 𝑚3 /s for the base flow.
 1 1 1 1
Area of DRH=(6x60x60)൤2 8 + 2 8 + 21 + 2 21 + 16 + 2 16 + 11
1 1 1 1
+2 11 + 7 + 2 7 + 4 + 2 4 + 2 + 2 (2)ሿ
=3600x6x(8+21+16+11+7+4+2)
=1.4904 x 106 m3
=Total direct runoff due to storm
runoff volume 1.4904 x 106
Runoff depth=catchment area= = 0.0552 m
27 𝑥10
=5.52 cm = rainfall excess
Total rainfall=3.8 +2.8= 6.6 cm
Duration= 8h
6.6−5.52
φindex= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝐜𝐦/𝐡
8
Example:
A storm over a catchment of area 5.0 km2 had a duration of 14
hours. The mass curve of rainfall of the storm is as follows:

If the φ-index of the catchment is 0.4cm/h, determine the effective rainfall

hyetograph and the volume of direct runoff from the catchment due to the
storm.
* Total effective rainfall = Direct runoff due to storm = area of
ER hyetograph
=(0.7+0.8+0.35+0.45)*2 = 4.6 cm

* Volume of direct runoff = (4.6/1000) * 5.0*(1000)2

= 23000m3
Unit-hydrograph

- was the first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has

undergone many refinements since then.
-the unit pulse response function of a linear hydrologic
system.

-defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from

one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over
the basin and at uniform rate for a specified duration (D hours).
 Sherman originally used the word “unit” to denote a unit of
time. But since that time it has often been interpreted as a
unit depth of excess rainfall.

 Sherman classified runoff into surface runoff and

groundwater runoff and defined the unit hydrograph for use
only with surface runoff.
 The unit hydrograph is a simple linear model that can be used to
derive the hydrograph resulting from any amount of excess rainfall. The
following basic assumptions are inherent in this model :

1.Rainfall excess of equal duration are assumed to produce

hydrographs with equivalent time bases regardless of the intensity of the
rain.

2. Direct runoff ordinates for a storm of given duration are

assumed directly proportional to rainfall excess volumes.
 3. The time distribution of direct runoff is assumed
independent of antecedent precipitation.

4. Rainfall distribution is assumed to be the same for all

storms of equal duration, both spatially and temporally.
Terminologies:
1. Duration of effective rainfall : the time from start to
finish of effective rainfall.
2. Lag time (L or tp): the time from the center of mass of
rainfall excess to the peak of the hydrograph.
3. Time of rise (TR): the time from the start of rainfall
excess to the peak of the hydrograph
4. Time base (Tb): the total duration of the DRO
hydrograph
 Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for
the unit-hydrology theory.

1. The time invariance

The direct-runoff response to a given effective rainfall

in a catchment. This implies that the DRH for a given ER in a
catchment is always the same irrespective of when it occurs.

2. The linear response

The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is

assumed to be linear. This is the most important assumption of the
unit-hydrograph theory.
Example:
Given below are the ordinates of a 6-h unit hydrograph for a
catchment. Calculate the ordinates of the DHR due to a rainfall excess
of 3.5 cm occurring in 6 h.

Solution:

* 25x3.5=87.5…
Example:
Obtain a Unit Hydrograph for a basin of 315 km2 of area using
the rainfall and stream flow data tabulated below.

Stream flow data Rainfall data

Time of concentration

Time of concentration is a concept used in hydrology to

measure the response of a watershed to a rain event. It is defined
as the time needed for water to flow from the most remote point in a
watershed to the watershed outlet. It is a function of the topography,
geology, and land use within the watershed. Time of concentration
is useful in predicting flow rates that would result from hypothetical
storms, which are based on statistically derived return
periods through IDF curves