Biología

-Biomoleculas
Ing. MSc. James Villar
• ¿Alguna vez se preguntó por qué su masa
de panqueques se eleva y forma
burbujas de aire cuando se hornea?
• ¿Alguna vez se preguntó por qué los
plátanos se vuelven marrones?
• ¿Nunca está seguro de qué
microorganismos en los alimentos pueden
ser dañinos?
 Definitions of Biological
products

http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/Transparency/Basics/ucm194516.htm
Picture in cover taken from: http://chemistry.mtu.edu/~thompson/ch4710/quizes/final/final2005/final2005.html
Types of Biological products

http://www.slideshare.net/robpuopolo/061713-biological-product-fda-basics-
 Además de la vida,
¿que cosa comparten la
gran diversidad de seres
vivos?
Que estamos formados por
los mismos elementos
 NIVEL MOLECULAR
• La naturaleza se rige por un principio de
simplicidad molecular.
• Todos los ADN de cualquier ser vivo se
forman por la combinación de 4 tipos de
nucleótidos.
• Sólo existen 4 tipos de biomoléculas
orgánicas.
• El 95% de la materia viva se forma por la
combinación de 4 elementos químicos.
• Todas las proteínas conocidas se forman
por la combinación de 20 aminoácidos.
 Entire organism

 System
 Tissue
 Cells
 Organelle
 Molecules
 Atoms

Molecular/atoms lowest
level of organization
 BIOELEMENTOS
• Todos los seres vivos están constituidos,
cualitativa y cuantitativamente por los
mismos elementos químicos.
• De todos los elementos que se hallan en
la naturaleza, sólo unos 25 son
componentes de los seres vivos
denominándoseles Bioelementos
 Organic chemistry
 Chemistry of Carbon
 CHNOPS
◦ Carbon
◦ Hydrogen
◦ Nitrogen
◦ Oxygen
◦ Phosphorus
◦ Sulfur
◦ Several Trace Minerals
 CLASIFICACIÓN DE LOS
BIOELEMENTOS
• Bioelementos Primarios o
Principales.
• Bioelementos Secundarios
• Oligoelementos
BIOELEMENTOS PRIMARIOS
Carbono (C)
Forms a bond with
4 other atoms in which
electrons are shared forming
a covalent compound

C
 Section 2-3

Carbon
Compounds
include

Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins

that consist of that consist of that consist of that consist of

Sugars and
Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids
starches
which contain which contain which contain which contain

Carbon, Carbon, Carbon,hydrogen, Carbon,

hydrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,oxygen,
oxygen oxygen phosphorus nitrogen,
Hidrogeno (H)
Oxigeno
Nitrogeno (N)
Bioelementos secundarios
Oligoelementos
Funciones
Biomoleculas organicas
All are polymers
All are organic (C) compounds

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Nucleic Acids

Differ in terms of composition and function

 Carbohydrates……. Energía, soporte e
identidad
 Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure,
reconocimiento,
transporte de pigmentos,
señales, movimiento
 Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure,
energy storage, signals
cellular metabolism (Vit K..)
 Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein
information, energy,
signals
 Carbohydrates……. Polysaccharide..of simple
sugars
 Proteins……………..Polypeptide..of amino acids

 Lipids………………..Insoluble in water..although
common polymer glycerol
and fatty acid
 Nucleic Acids……….Polynucleotide..of
 nucleotides
Glucidos
 Challenge: Explain what you think is happening here.
(at least 3 sentences)

Loaf of bread Bread crumbs Polysaccharide

Monosaccharide Disaccharide

The diagram shows a picture of bread (starch). It also maps

out the break down of carbohydrates from their most
complex form (polysaccharide) to their least complex
(monosaccharide). This process is called hydrolysis.
 Structure

Sugar
Many

Polysaccharide
 Structure
Sugar
Two

Di saccharide
 Structure

Sugar
One

Monosaccharide
 -OH Several OH (alcohol) groups
This group LOVES water
Makes sugars solids and water soluble

 C=O C with a double bond to an oxygen

Aldehyde or ketone Joins w/an
–OH to form a cyclic structure The
resulting C (C-1) has OH/H
Position of OH determines further
bonding
Open Chain Cyclic
Loss of H and -OH Loss of Water !!!!!
 Lactose = Milk Sugar
 Lactose = Glucose and
galactose
 Lactase = Enzyme that
digests lactose
 Most mammals express
lactase only as juveniles
 Adults are lactose
intolerant
Starch...bonds between Cellulose…bonds
glucose can be digested between glucose cannot
Amylose=plant Glycogen =animal be digested by mammals
 Starch stores glucose  Cellulose is a rigid
molecules for energy molecule of support

 Amylose  Maltose  Cellulose  Cellobiose

Amylase  Cellulase

 Maltose  2 Glucose  Cellobiose  2Glucose

 Cellobiase
Maltase

 Good for providing  Good for

energy making paper
 Starch
Long chains of simpler sugars joined together
These big molecules are called macromolecules
Also called polysaccharides or polymers
Slower to break down in the body & provide energy
for a longer period of time than regular sugars.
 Starch Examples

Potatoes Wheat Corn

Fig. 3.9
Polysaccharides
Starch structure vs Glycogen structure
 Cellulose
A diferencia de las células animales, las células vegetales
tienen una pared celular hecha de celulosa.
La pared celular es una gran parte de vegetales como lechuga
y apio. También es lo que da tallos y resistencia a la madera.
Hecho de cadenas de miles de moléculas de glucosa, pero la
diferencia está en cómo están unidas.
Because of this small difference, your body cannot digest
cellulose the same way it can starches & sugars.
Fig. 3.10

Polysaccharides: Cellulose structure

Benedict's …Chemical test for reducing sugars

To test for the presence of monosaccharides and reducing disaccharide sugars

in food, the food sample is dissolved in water, and a small amount of Benedict's
reagent is added.

During heating in a water bath, which is usually 4-10 minutes, the solution
should progress in the colors of blue (with no glucose present), green, yellow,
orange, red, and then brick red or brown (with high glucose present).

Lugol’s …Chemical test for starch

An indicator test for the presence of starches

Reacts by turning a dark-blue/black.

Stain starches due to iodine's interaction with the coil structure of the
polysaccharide
Proteinas
 Proteins (also known as polypeptides) are
organic compounds made of amino acids.
 Proteins are essential parts of organisms
 Proteins participate in virtually every process
within cells.
 Proteins make up half the dry weight of an
Escherichia coli cell (other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA
make up only 3% and 20%, respectively).

Las proteínas tienen diversas funciones, debido

a su capacidad para unirse a otras moléculas
específicamente y firmemente
 Structural…. Bones,skin, nails, hooves, hair
 Enzymatic… Digest sugar, makes DNA, makes fatty acids
 Transport… Carries oxygen and fats in blood, Ca2+/Cl-

 Contractile.. Muscles for movement, move chromosomes

 Hormone…. regulate blood sugar, increase heart rate

 Immunity... Antibodies fight foreign substance

 Pigment….. Pigment in skin, eyes

 Recognition. On cell surfaces—Other molecules (receptors)

 Toxins…… Stops nerve transmission, effects movement of

ions, enzymes that destroy red blood cells
Fig. 3.18
 Polymer of many amino acids

Amino Acid
H O
H N C C OH
H R
Central Carbon

R group
 Twenty different amino acid
are found in proteins
 Most microorganisms and
plants can biosynthesize all
20
 Animals (including humans)
must obtain some of the
amino acids from the diet.
 The amino acids that an
organism cannot synthesize
on its own are referred to as
essential amino acids.
 Humans require 8 essential amino acids
Also called a
An octapeptide
condensation reaction
 The order in which
amino acids are bonded
is called the sequence
 The sequence of amino
acids determines the
primary structure of a
protein
 Determined by the
genetic code (sequence
of DNA)
 Some amino acid  http://www.biog11
groups are 05-
attracted to each 1106.org/demos/1
others 05/unit1/proteinstr
ucture.html
 Some amino acid
groups are repelled
by each other
The chain (polymer) of amino acids forms a variety of
loops, coils, and folded sheets from an assortment of
bonds and attractions between amino acids within the
chain(s)
 PEPTIDE
FORMATION

 Amino acids are linked serially by peptide

bonds (-CONH-) formed between the
(-NH2) of one amino acid and the
(-COOH) of adjacent amino acid

 Chain having 2 amino acids linked by a

peptide bond is called as a DIPEPTIDE

 The sequence of amino acids present in

a polypeptide is specific for a particular
protein.
 4 basic structural levels are assigned to
STRUCTURE OF proteins – primary, secondary, tertiary
PROTEIN and quaternary

PRIMARY

The primary structure refers to the number

and linear sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain and the location of the
disulphide bridges

The primary structure is responsible for the

function of the protein.

The N-terminal amino acid is written on the

left side whereas the C- terminal amino acid
is written on the right side
 The folding of the linear chain into a specific coiled
structure is called as secondary structure.
SECONDARY
3 types : α- helix, β- pleated sheet and collagen
helix

α- helix β- pleated sheet Collagen helix

 TERTIARY

The helical polypeptide may fold upon itself and assume a complex but
specific form – spherical, rod like or something in between.

These geometrical shapes are known as tertiary (30) structure

QUATERNARY

Proteins are said to be quaternary in structure

If they have 2 or more polypeptide chains

Haemoglobin is an excellent example

There are four levels of protein
structure
Primary = sequence
of aa’s
Secondary = forms
pleated sheet, helix,
or coil
Tertiary = entire
length of aa’s folded
into a shape
Quaternary = several
aa sequences linked
together
 Amino acid groups
determine the
overall shape of
protein

 Proteins are not

long straight
molecules, but are
usually folded into
a 3-D shape
 Structural proteins confer
stiffness and rigidity to
otherwise-fluid biological
components.

 Most structural proteins are

fibrous proteins.

 Polymerize to form long,

stiff fibers that comprise
the cytoskeleton, which
allows the cell to maintain
its shape and size
  DNA 

Angelman’s Syndrome
Color Blindness
 Cystic Fibrosis
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Hemophilia
 RNA

 Sickle Cell Disease
 Tay Sacs
mRNA to be exact  Phenylketonuria
 Ataxia telangiectasia
 Gaucher disease
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Protein
 Parkinson Disease
 Huntington Disease
 Alzheimer Disease
 Cancer (Breast, Colon, etc..
 And the list goes on and on and on
Central Dogma of
Molecular Biology
  DNA
Transcription Regulation of transcription
determines genes expressed (and
proteins produced)
 RNA
mRNA to be exact Shortly after or even during
synthesis, the residues in a protein
are often chemically modified by
Translation
post-translational modification
Protein Alters the physical and chemical
properties, folding, stability,
activity, and ultimately, the
function of the proteins.

Gene Expression
 Chemical test used for
detecting the presence of
peptide bonds.
 In a positive test, a
copper(II) ion is reduced to
copper(I)
 Forms a complex with the
nitrogen and carbon of the
peptide bonds in an
alkaline solution.
 A violet color indicates the
presence of proteins
Biuret test
 Alternative protein
assays include:
◦ UV spectroscopy
◦ Lowry protein assay
◦ Bicinchoninic acid protein
assay (BCA)
◦ Amido black protein
assay
Other Tests
 Venom released by the brown recluse spider contains a complex collection of
enzymes. Primarily protein-based, the brown recluse spider's venom has
antigenic and locally destructive properties. Among other subcomponents,
esterases, hyaluronidases and proteases have been isolated from recluse
spider venom through various purification techniques. Of these,
Sphingomyelinase-D has been identified as the primary substance with a
toxic effect on red blood cells.
 Sphingomyelinase-D directly causes hemolysis, which damages red blood
cell walls and leads to the leakage of the red, oxygen-bearing protein known
as hemoglobin. Anemia may result. After red blood cell casts are discarded,
they are filtered through the kidneys and can cause renal failure.
 Brown recluse venom triggers the aggregation of platelets and endothelial
swelling in order to combat harm caused to red blood cells. White blood cells
are brought to the area of the injury. However, instead of forming blood clots
where needed, these white blood cells form blood clots in capillaries,
resulting in necrosis.
Lipidos
 Sometimes used as a synonym for fats
Fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides

 Lipids are defined as molecules that are

hydrophobic or amphiphilic
◦ Hydrophobic..they don’t dissolve in water
◦ Amphiphilic nature = some lipids form structures
such as vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in a
water environment
 Broad group of The main biological
molecules that functions of lipids
includes: include:
 Fats Waxes
 Sterols  Energy storage
 Fat-soluble vitamin  Structural
(such as vitamins A, D, E and K),
components of cell
 Monoglycerides,
membranes
 Diglycerides,
 Phospholipids,  Important signaling
 and others. molecules.
 Made of mostly C-H

 Some oxygen
 Some phosphorus
 Might see nitrogen

 Made of mostly C-H

 That’s why they are

hydrophobic
They Don’t like water…They Don’t like water..They don’t like water
 Triglycerides
Remember …mostly
carbon and
hydrogen!
 Phospholipids

 Steroids
 Animal fat and
plant oils

 Energy storage
molecules

 Composed of
glycerol and fatty
acids
 Saturated fats..All  Unsaturated fats..A
C-C single bonds few to many C = C
double bonds

 Molecules pack together  Molecules don’t pack

well—a solid –or fat--at together—a liquid—or oil—
room temperature at room temperature
 Found primarily in cell
membranes

 Similar to triglycerides
except…these have a
phosphate group

 Makes the molecule

capable of interactions
with water
Phosphate = polar head
 Phosphate = A
negative charge

 Hydrophilic-phosphate
(head)
 Hydrophobic-fatty acid
(tail)

 Make membrane
bilayer in water
environment (like the
cell)
 Overlapping rings
of C-H
 Complex molecules
with many
functions
◦ Hormone
◦ Pigments
◦ Vitamins
◦ Cholesterol one of
most important
Testosterone
 Grease-spot test
for lipids has been
used for centuries.

 Produce a
translucent stain on
paper or fabric
 Consists of sodium or  https://anitagrant.c
potassium salts of fatty
acids om/images/stories
 Made by reacting common /ingredients/SiteUp
oils or fats with a strong dates/SAPprocess.g
alkaline solution (the base,
NaOH) in a process known if
as saponification.
 The fats are split from
glycerol by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty
acids (crude soap) and
glycerol
Ácidos nucleicos
Funciones
 A nucleic acid is a  Nucleic acids are
polymer composed of universal in living
chains of monomeric things, as they are
nucleotides. found in all cells and
viruses
 The most common
nucleic acids are  Named for their role in
deoxyribonucleic acid the cell nucleus
(DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA).
 DNA is responsible for the
long-term storage of
information

 DNA is often compared to a

set of blueprints

 DNA contains the

instructions needed to
construct other components
of cells, such as proteins
and RNA molecules.
  mRNA roles is the
transcribed genetic
information from
RNA includes: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

 rRNA acts as assembly site

for protein synthesis in
 mRNA (messenger) complexes or protein and
RNA known as ribosomes,
 tRNA (transfer)
 tRNA serves as an essential
carrier molecule for amino
 rRNA (ribosomal) acids to be used in protein
synthesis.

All used in protein synthesis All encoded in the DNA

 The monomers from which
nucleic acids are
constructed are called
nucleotides.
 A sequence of nucleotides
 RNA is usually single-
forms a polymeric chain
that has the ability to
interact with another chain
or other parts of the chain
 A double-stranded nucleic
acid consists of two single-
stranded nucleic acid chains
held together by hydrogen
bonds, such as in the DNA
double helix.
stranded, but any given
strand may fold back upon
itself to form secondary
structure as in tRNA and
rRNA.
Each nucleotide consists
of three components:

 A carbon to carbon ringed

structure with nitrogen
◦ Called a nitrogenous base

◦ Either a purine or a pyrimidine

 A 5-carbon sugar and

 A phosphate group.
 DNA contains
2-deoxyribose

 RNA contains ribose

 The only difference is

the presence or absence of a a
OH (hydroxyl group) on the
second carbon

That OH makes RNA less RNA is a transient

stable---easily degraded molecule..
 Adenine, cytosine, and
guanine are found in both
RNA and DNA

 Thymine only occurs in DNA

and uracil only occurs in
RNA.

DNA = A T C G RNA = A U C G
 Phosphate – as found
in phospholipids

 HPO4

 Found between two

adjacent nucleotides in
a polypeptide

 Sugar – phosphate
backbone
 The addition of a
nucleotide requires a
nucleotide tri-
phosphate………the
energy necessary to
create the bond
between adjacent
nucleotide is found in
the phosphates that
leave
 Making a new DNA or
RNA polynucleotide
requires a DNA
molecule to be copied.

 DNA is copied by
matching
complementary bases

Adenine pairs with

Cytosine pairs with
Thymine (or Uracil in
Guanine
RNA)
Resulting DNA molecule:
 Two chains of twisted
nucleotides
(two strands-a double helix)

 Arranged anti-parallel

 Just enough room for a purine

(double ring) and a pyrimidine
(single ring)…….This
determines the match
 Two chains are held
together by a weak
interaction between
the bases

 C= G A=T

 The bond holding the

nucleotides together
within the strand is
very strong
 Order of bases on the
polynucleotide chain is Although DNA is
called the DNA represented by a
sequence sequence of letters, it
 This determines the is important to
message encoded by remember that each
the molecule nucleotide has a sugar
and a phosphate
 ATTCGCTTGAACT…..
 Uses uracil instead of
thymine

 -OH group on the

second carbon of the
sugar
(its ribose—not deoxyribose)

 Single stranded
 TACCGTCTCGAA
 DNA
Transcription

 RNA AUGGCAGAGCUU
mRNA to be exact mRNA to be exact

Translation

Protein Amino Acids….

How is RNA Translated?

 AUGGCAGAGCUU

 AUG GCA GAG CUU

 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

amino acid amino acid amino acid aacid
 Met Ala Glu Leu
 Electrophoresis
with dyes that bind
DNA

 Best is Ethidium
Bromide

 Sybersafe with
comparable
sensitivity
Bio Role in Cell Monomer Distinguishing Test
molecule Features
•C=O, OH Benedict’s
group Test
Carbo Energy/ Mono- •Substitute -OH
hydrate Support saccharide • The way they Lugol’s
are connected Test
Protein Regulation/ Amino Central C w/H
support Acid -NH2 Biuret
-COOH Reagent
R groups
Lipids Energy Glycerol Mostly C-H
Support and fatty Grease
Signaling acids? Insoluble in water spot test
Cholesterol
Nucleic Information Nucleotide Sugar Ethidium
Acids Energy, Phosphate bromide
Signaling Cyclic N-Base Sybersafe
Methylene
Blue
Fig. 3.3
Biomoleculas inorgánicas