SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

Module IV
Session 1
Temperature & Displacement
sensors
 Sensor and transducer
• ‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and
turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
• ‘Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to
another in the same or in the different form'. Transducer is any device
that converts energy in one form to another energy. The majority
either convert electrical energy to mechanical displacement or convert
some non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature, sound
or light to an electrical signal.

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the sensing
element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers would thus
contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would also be transducers.
 Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency of
some measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately
processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.
 Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application, based
primarily on the physical quantity, property, or condition that is
measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone

B) Self generating transducer:

- not require an external power, and they produce analog voltage or
current when stimulated by some physical form of energy. E.g. :
Thermocouple
Different types of Transducers

1. Temperature transducers
2. Resistive Position Transducer
3. Capacitive Transducer
4. Inductive Transducer
5. Strain Gauge
6. LVDT
7. Piezoelectric Transducer
 1. Temperature Transducers
A temperature transducer is an electrical device usually
used in automated air-temperature control sequences. Its
purpose is to take a measurement of the air temperature and
relay the information after translating it into a readable form
to a power source for the mechanical part of the system.
Temperature transducers can be divided into four main
categories:

a) Thermocouples
b) Thermistor
c) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
a) Thermocouple

• It is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two

dissimilar metals at one end.
• The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other
end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the COLD END or
COLD JUNCTION.
• If there is a difference in temperature between the hot junction
and cold junction, a small voltage is created.
• This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and
can be measured and in turn used to indicate temperature.
 a) Thermocouple
The EMF of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T12 – T22)
Where, c and k = constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 = The temperature of the “hot” junction
T2 = The temperature of the “cold” or “reference” junction
WORKING: Measuring junction is heated, small DC voltage (millivolts) generated in
thermocouple wires. Thermocouple converts thermal energy into electrical energy
Thermocouple only generates a millivoltage signal when there is temperature difference
between “hot” and “cold” junctions. Cold” junction usually set to 32oF(0oC). Made up of
two different metal alloy wires. Different alloys result in different temperature ranges

Standard Metal Metal Temp.

Type Content Content Range
(Pos. Leg) (Neg. Leg)
B 70.4% (Pt) 93.9% (Pt) 1600-3100 oF
29.6% (Rh) 6.1% (Rh) 870-1700 oC

E 90% (Ni) 55% (Cu) 32-1650 oF

10% (Cr) 45% (Ni) 870-1700 oC
b) Thermistor
• A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of
metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper
and uranium.
• They are pressed to bead or wafer form which are heated under
pressure at high temp & encapsulated with glass/epoxy.
• Very Sensitive:Very large resistance change = small temp. change
• 3 – 5% per oC (vs. 0.4% per oC for RTDs)
• Temp. changes as small as 0.1oC
• Significantly smaller in size
• Temp range: -100oC – 300oC (-120oF – 570oF)
Types of thermistor Resistance
Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance
b) Thermistor
There are basically two broad
types
1. NTC-Negative Temperature
Coefficient: used mostly in
temperature sensing
2. PTC-Positive Temperature
Coefficient,: used mostly in
electric current control.
This figure shows resistance
versus temperature for a family
thermistor. The resistance value
marked at the bottom end of
each curve is a value at 250C
b) Thermistor
Advantages of thermistor
• Small size and low cost
• Fast response over narrow temperature range
• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) region
• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence
of resistance on absolute temperature.
• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due
to large resistance
Limitations of thermistor
• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance
 c) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• An RTD is basically a temperature sensitive resistor which is a positive
temperature coefficient device
• As like thermocouple it doesn’t produce any voltage by itself
• They are the detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with temperature
has high intrinsic accuracy.
• They are available in many configurations and size and as shielded or open units
for both immersion and surface applications like they are used in electrical
appliances such as motors, generators
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation:

R  R0 (1  T )
Where, R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0= the resistance at the reference temperature, usually 200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT= the difference between the operating and the reference temperature
 How do RTDs work?
• RTD’s resistance as temp.
• Controller measures resistance value and converts to temp.
reading, fairly linear relationship.
• Unlike thermocouple, no electrical signal generated
• Controller measures resistance by passing current through RTD
• Use a base resistance value (ex: for Platinum, value of 100 ohms
at 0oC (32oF)

RTD Resistance Vs. Temp. (TCR) Curve

Resistance
(Ohms) TCR = Temperature coefficient of resistance

Temperature (oC)
 c) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Precision Temperature Sensors with advantages
• More accurate and stable than thermocouple elements
• Maintain accuracy over longer period of time
• Range up to 1200oF (650 oC)
Disadvantages of RTDs
Cost: Platinum is 2x more expensive
Temp. Range limited
Response Time slower, 2x-4x times slower as heat must transfer through epoxy or
glass coating and entire RTD element must reach uniform temp. before accurate
measurement taken.
 2. Displacement Sensors
Measurement of displacement is the basis of measuring:
Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Stress, Force, Pressure,
Proximity, Thickness. Displacement transducers can be
divided into following main categories:

a) Potentiometer
b) Strain Gauges
c) Inductive Sensors (LVDT)
d) Capacitive Sensors
e) Piezoelectric Sensors
f) Ultrasonic displacement sensors
 a) Resistive Position Transducer
The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical
variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the
sensing element. The change in the value of the resistance with a
change in the length of the conductor can be used to measure
displacement.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and control
work is to be able to sense the position of an object or distance it has
moved.
L
R  Potentiometer
A
R: resistance change
: density
L: Length
A: area
 a) Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element
provided with a sliding contact, called a wiper. The motion of the
sliding contact may betranslatory or rotational.
 a) Potentiometer

Advantage of Potentiometers
1. They are inexpensive.
2. Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the
requirements are not particularly severe.
3. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
4. Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow
control operations.

Disadvantages of Potentiometers
1. When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the
sliding contacts.
2. The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
 b) Strain Gauge
• The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires.
• It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring
weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a fine wire element
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented
to the member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tends to elongate the
wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area.
Bonded type strain gauges are three types, namely
1. Wire Strain Gauges
2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
b) Strain Gauge
 b) Strain Gauge
The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

L
R
Where,
A
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,

K, is expressed mathematically as
 b) Strain Gauge
R / R
K
L / L
Where

K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
∆L=the change in initial length in meters

∆L/L same unit with G is strain, therefore

R / R
K
G
 b) Strain Gauge
From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.

F
S
A
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters

Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Young’s modulus

(Hooke’s Law) is written as:

Where,
S
E E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G G= the strain (no units)
 b) Strain Gauge
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
1. Semiconductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor of
about + 130. This allows measurement of very small strains, of
the order of 0.01 micron.
2. Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are
excellent, eg. less than 0.05%.
3. Frequency response of 1012 Hz.
4. Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size,
ranging in length from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge

1. They are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
2. Linearity of semiconductor strain gauges is poor.
3. They are more expensive.
 c) Inductive Transducer
• Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type.
• The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator
principle, i.e, a motion between a conductor and magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor (generator action). This
relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied
by changes in the measurand.
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that
converts physical motion (position change) into a change in
inductance.
• Transducers of variable inductance type work upon one of the
following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
c) Inductive Transducer
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
• It consists basically of a primary winding and two secondary windings,
wound over a hollow tube and positioned so the primary winding is between
two secondary.
• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondary. When the core is in
the Centre, voltage induced in the two secondary is equal. When the core is
moved in one direction from Centre, the voltage induced in one winding is
increased and that in the other is decreased.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary
windings S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former.
• An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.
The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft
iron core.
• When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in
the two secondary windings. The frequency of the ac applied to the primary
winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
• The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of
secondary winding S2 is Es2.
• In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the
two secondary S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
• Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1- Es2.
• When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both secondary
windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Hence, at null
position Es1 = Es2. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
• Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links
with winding S1 and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage Es1 of the
secondary winding S1 is greater than Es2 . The magnitude of the output
voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2, in phase with Es1 (the output
voltage of secondary winding S1).
• Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux
linking with winding S2 becomes greater than that linked with winding S1.
This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1. The output voltage in this case
is Eo = Es2— Es1 and is in phase with Es2.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
Advantages
• Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements
upto 5 mm
• Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless.
• High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is no need for amplification devices).
• High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
• Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock.
• Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
• Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions.
• Low power: consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W
Disadvantages
• Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
• They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
• The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or ademodulator
network must be used if a dc output is required.
• The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by
the applied voltage.
• Temperature also affects the transducer.
 d) Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA 0
C ( Farads)
d

where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m
 d) Capacitive Transducer
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rectilinear Capacitance
Rotary plate capacitor Transducer

Thin diaphragm
 d) Capacitive Transducer

Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the

amount of the fixed plate that is covered, that
shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer
will give sign proportional to curvilinear
displacement or angular velocity.
 d) Capacitive Transducer

Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:

It consists of a fixed cylinder and

a moving cylinder. These
pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the
fixed piece but insulated from
it.
 d) Capacitive Transducer

Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.
d) Capacitive Transducer
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
 e) Piezoelectric Transducer
A Symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle
salt and Barium titanate produce an emf when they are placed
under stress. This property is used in Piezoelectric Transducer
Working Principle, where a crystal is placed between a solid
base and the force-summing member.
e) Piezoelectric Transducer