UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL
Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical Engineering)
Manufacturing Techniques (MET-204)

CASTING PROCESS DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 • CASTING PROCESSES Space for visual
MANUFECTURIG (size 24)

TECHNIQUES
Course Outcome
CO Number Title Level

CO1 Understand and apply the principles of metal Remember

casting processes and develop analytical relation
between input and output process parameters.
CO2 Apply theoretical and experimental techniques for Understand
measurement of important outcomes of casting
processes like hardness, dimensional accuracy etc.
CO3 Understand, analyze and apply the concept of cooling Understand
rate of materials in metal casting.

CO4 Understand the model of casting economics and Understand

optimization and its measurement

CO5 To understand the concept of process Understand

involved in different castings
CASTING PROCESSES

Introduction to manufacturing process.

Casting, process involved in casting.
Mould formation, different types of mould.
Different types of patterns,
2.1 Basics of casting process
• Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay.
2.2 Steps followed in casting process

There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.
2.2.1 Steps followed in casting process
 2.3 Terminology associated with casting process
• Cleaning: Removal of runners, risers, flash, surplus metal and sand from a casting. .
• Coining: A press metal-working operation which establishes accurate dimensions of flat
surfaces or depressions under predominantly compressive loading.
• Core: A sand or metal insert in a mold to shape the interior of the casting or that part of the
casting that cannot be shaped by the mold pattern. The portion of the cast which forms the
internal shape
• Crush: The displacement of sand at mold joints.
• Die: A metal form used as a permanent mold for die casting or for wax pattern in investment
casting.
• Die Casting: A casting process in which the molten metal is forced under pressure into a metal
mold cavity.
• Die Cavity: The impression in a die into which pattern material is forced.
• Directional Solidification: The solidification of molten metal in a casting in such a manner that
liquid feed metal is always available for that portion that is just solidifying.
 2.3 Terminology associated with casting process
• Casting Yield: The weight of casting or castings divided by the total weight of metal
poured into the mold, expressed as a percent. .
• Cavity: The portion of a cast which forms the external shape
• Chaplet: A small metal insert or spacer used in molds to provide core support during the
casting process.
• Chill: A metal insert in the sand mold used to produce local chilling and equalize rate of
solidification throughout the casting.
• Gas Porosity: A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten
metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting.
• Green Sand: A molding sand that has been tempered with water and is employed for
casting when still in the damp condition.
• Hotbox Process: A resin-based process that uses heated metal coreboxes to produce cores.
• Hot tear: Irregularly shaped fracture in a casting resulting from stresses set up by steep
thermal gradients within the casting during solidification.
 2.4 Pattern

• In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into which
molten material will be poured during the casting process. Patterns used in sand casting may be
made of wood, metal, plastics or other materials.

Pattern as compared to Casting

1. Pattern is large because it carries: - allowances (shrinkage, machining, draft etc.).

2. It carries core prints.
3. Pattern does not have holes, slots.
4. Pattern may be two or three pieces.
 2.4 Pattern

Selection of patterns

The following factors affect the choice of a pattern:-

(i) Number of Castings to be produced.
(ii) Size and complexity of the shape of casting
(iii) Type of molding and castings method to be used.
(iv) Machining operation
(v) Characteristics of castings
 2.5 Different types of pattern

Different types of patterns

1) Single piece pattern

2) Split piece pattern
3) Loose piece pattern
4) Gated pattern
5) Match pattern
6) Sweep pattern
7) Cope and drag pattern
8) Skeleton pattern
9) Follow board pattern
2.5 Different types of pattern

a) Single piece, b) Split, c) Match-plate, d) Cope and Drag Pattern

 2.5 Different types of pattern

Loose Piece Pattern

Gated pattern
Sweep pattern
2.5 Different types of pattern

Skeleton pattern Follow board pattern

 2.6 Pattern Materials

1) Wood : white pine, deodar, teak, kail, shesham, maple, mahogany etc.
2) Metals : Al alloy, Steel, C.I., Brass
3) Plaster
4) Plastics
5) Wax
 2.7 Pattern Allowances

Pattern allowances are used in order to produce a casting of proper size and shape. These allowances depend
partly on product design, mould design, shrinkage and contraction of the metal being cast.
Following are the allowances which are usually provided in a pattern:-
1.Shrinkage allowance:
For GCI = 6.95 – 10.4, WCI = 20.8, Steel = 20.8, Al = 17 mm/meter etc.
2.Draft/Taper allowance:
Taper on External surface = 10-25 mm/meter
Taper on Internal surface = 40 – 65 mm/meter
3.Distortion or camber allowance : 2 – 20 mm
4.Rapping or Shaking allowance
5.Finishing/Machining allowance: 1.6 to 12.5 mm
 2.8 Molding Materials

1. Permanent Molds - ferrous metals and alloys (steel, GCI)

2. Temporary refractory molds – refractory sand (Silica sand, Zircon,

Dolomite, Graphite/Carbon etc.) and resins.

Molding materials contains:-

1. Molding sand
2. Molding Sand Binder
3. Water
4. Additives
2.9 Types of Molds
1. Green Sand Mold
2. Dry Sand Mold
3. Skin Dried Mold
4. Air Dried Mold
5. Core-sand Mold
6. Shell Mold
7. Cement Bonded Sand Mold
8. Metal Mold/ Dies/Permanent Mold
9. Investment Mold
10. Ceramic Mold
11. Graphite Mold
12. Plaster Mold
2.9 Types of Molds
Types of Molding Sand
A. Natural silica sand
B. Synthetic sand
C. Loam sand
D. Green sand
E. Dry Sand
F. Core sand
G. Parting Sand
H. Facing sand
2.10 Various types of moulding materials

Molding sand

* Properties of Molding Sand

1. Flowability
2. Green Strength
3. Dry strength
4. Hot strength
5. Permeability
6. Refractoriness
7. Adhesiveness
8. Collapsibility
9. Fineness
10. Bench life
11. Co-efficient of expansion
12. Durability
2.10 Various types of moulding materials
• Molding Sand

Silica sand forms bulk of the molding sand.

A good molding sand my contain following ( But this is not fixed rule) : Silica
sand ( SiO2) 80.8%, , Alumina (Al2O3) – 14.9% , Iron oxide ( Fe2O3) –
1.3%.

It may be :-
1. Natural Sand
2. Synthetic Sand
3. Loam
 2.10 Various types of moulding materials

•Molding sand Binders:-

Less refractory, used to bind the molding sand and to give proper shape.
A) Clay Binder –
Fire clay – large particles
Bentonite- Volcanic ash, creamy white powder, softening temp.- 1800 to 2500 degree F.
Kaolinite – Weathered granite and basalt. Softening temp. – 3000 to 3100 Degree F.
When heated to high temperature, it get hardened.
Particle size = 0.001 to 1 μm

• Water: 1.5 to 8%, act as binder as well as lubricant.

•Additives:- added to enhance or develop other properties

* Molasses, wooden flour, corn starch etc.
 2.10 Various types of moulding materials
Additives
These are materials added in small quantities to molding sand to enhance its existing or impart
special properties

Coal dust / Sea coal

• This is finely ground soft coal
• Used for providing better surface finish to castings
• It creates gases & forms gaseous envelope & avoids fusing of metal with sand
• It increases strength of moulding sand
• It is added up to 8%

Saw dust or wood flour

• This widens the range of water that can be added to get proper green strength
• This increases gas permeability of moulds & cores
• It helps to maintain uniform mould density
• Too high wood flour makes molding sand brittle
 2.10 Various types of moulding materials

Cereals
• This is finely ground corn flour
• It increase green & dry strength of the molding sand
• As, cereal is organic , it is burned out when hot metal comes in contact with sand
• As density of cereals is less , normally 1% is sufficient

Iron oxide
• Iron oxide improves surface
• It decreases metal penetration
• Normally added up to 3 %
• Iron oxide improves hot strength
• It reduces collapsibility and makes shake out of mould difficult
• Iron oxide reduces green strength
2.11 Various Molding Equipments
1. Bellow
2. Brush
3. Lifter/ Cleaner
4. Dust Bag
5. Gaggers
6. Heart and Square
7. Peen Rammer
8. Hand Rammer
9. Floor Rammer
10. Hand Riddle
11. Sprue Pin
12. Sprue Cutter
13. Spray Gun
14. Spirit Level
15. Spring and nails
 2.11 Various Molding Equipments
Methods of moulding

• Bench molding
• Molding done on bench of suitable height
• Floor molding
• Molding is done on foundry floor
• Foundry floor acts as drag
• Used for medium sized and large castings
• Pit Molding
• Molding is done in pit instead of flask
• Machine molding
Molding machine performs which are normally performed by hand i.e. ramming , rolling , forming of gate ,
removal of pattern
• Sweep molding
• Molding is done by sweep pattern
 2.11 Various
Important CAMS Molding Equipments
Moulding Machines

Jolt machine
• Used for ramming of sand in the mould
• It consists of cylinder & piston on top of which a table is attached
• Flask & pattern with sand over it is placed on the table
• These machines ram the sand harder at pattern face with decreasing hardness towards
back of mould
Important
2.11 CAMS
Various Molding Equipments
Squeezing machine
• Ramming of sand is also done by squeezing machine.
• A plate slightly smaller than inside dimensions of molding flask is fitted into the flask.
• Uniform pressure is applied on the plate.
• Sand nearest to plate is rammed hardest and softest near the pattern surface.
Important
2.11 CAMS
Various Molding Equipments

Jolt – Squeeze machine

• Combination of jolt and squeezing machine

• It over comes draw back of both the machines
• It produces uniform hardness throughout the mould
• The flask is assembled with match plate between cope and drag
• Sand is rammed into drag by jolting action
• Now assembly is turned over
• Then cop is filled with sand and pressure plate is placed on top of flask
• Now sand is rammed by squeezing
 2.12 Core

A core is a shape/ form, used in casting and molding processes to produce internal
cavities. The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the
piece
 2.12 Core

Requirements of Core

1.Green Strength: In the green condition there must be adequate strength for handling.
2. In the hardened state it must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore the compression
strength should be 0.69 to 2.07 MPa.
3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
4. Collapsibility: As the casting or molding cools the core must be weak enough to break down as the
material shrinks. Moreover, they must be easy to remove during shakeout.
5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by hot metal during casting or molding.
6. A smooth surface finish.
7. Minimum generation of gases during metal pouring.
2.13 Functions of Cores
Functions of Cores

1. For making internal cavities

2. May form a part of green sand mold
3. For providing external undercuts.
4. To improve mold surface
5. To achieve deep recess in castings
6. To strengthen molds
7. To form gating system of large castings
 2.14 Characteristics of Cores materials

1. Sufficient strength to support itself and to get handled without breaking.

2. High permeability
3. Smooth surface
4. High refractoriness
5. High collapsibility
 2.14 Characteristics of Cores materials

Core Materials:-
1. Granular Refractory materials: silica sand, zircon, olivine, carbon etc.
2. Core Binders: Core oil (vegetable, mineral oil), starch, dextrin, molasses, wood
flour, fire clay, bentonite, Portland cement etc.
3. Water:- 2-7 %
4. Additives
2.15 Core Preparation

Core Preparation

1. Core Sand Preparation

2. Making the cores
3. Baking the Cores
4. Finishing of cores
5. Setting the cores
 2.15 Core Preparation
Chaplets
Chaplets are used to support the cores which tend to sag or sink. These are normally rigid metal
pieces. If chaplets are not used , then cores will be displaced and we will get defective casting

a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity
2.15 Core Preparation
Different type of chaplets
 2.16 Types of Cores:-

Types of Cores :-

Cores may be categorized according to :

1. State of condition of core – Green sand or dry sand core
2. Nature of Core materials employed- Oil bonded core, Resin bonded cores, Sodium silicate cores
3.Shape and Position of core :-
A. Horizontal core
B. Vertical core
C. Hanging or cover core
D. Balanced Core
E. Drop/stop off core
F. Ram up core
 2.16 Types of Cores:-

According to the position of core in mould

Horizontal core
• This is place horizontally in mould
• This is most commonly used
• It is supported in mould at both ends formed by pattern
• This is usually positioned along parting line
 2.16 Types of Cores:-
Vertical core
• This is place vertically in mould
• Two ends of core rest on core seats in cope and drag
• The maximum portion of core is supported in the drag
2.16 Types of Cores:-
Balance core
• This is used for producing blind holes in the casting
• This is basically horizontal core supported at one end
• Second end remains free in mould
2.16 Types of Cores:-
Hanging core
• This core hangs vertically in the mould
• This has no support in bottom
•This type of core usually requires a hole through the upper part to permit the metal to reach the
mould.
3. Different Casting processes, Casting
defects , Inspection of castings
3.1.1 Centrifugal Casting :-
 3.1.1 Centrifugal Casting :-

Materials
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and alloys
of aluminum, copper and nickel.

Applications
• Typical parts made by this process are pipes, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are
axi-symmetric.
• It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and sleeve valves for piston engines, parts which could
not be reliably manufactured otherwise.
 3.1.1 Centrifugal Casting :-

Features of centrifugal casting

•Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.

•Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.
•Eliminates the need for cores.
•Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
•Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent.
•Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
•Size limits are up to 6 m (20 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length.
•Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm
•Tolerance limit: on the OD can be 2.5 mm (0.1 in) on the ID can be 3.8 mm .
•Surface finish ranges from 2.5 mm to 12.5 mm.
3.1.1 Centrifugal Casting :-
Semi- Centrifugal Casting
3.1.2 Investment Casting
Investment Casting
It is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest
known metal-forming techniques.
 3.1.2 Investment Casting
Advantages of investment casting

•Excellent surface finish

•High dimensional accuracy
•Extremely intricate parts are castable
•Almost any metal can be cast
•No flash or parting lines

Disadvantages of investment casting

1. High cost, especially for short-run productions.

2. Occasional minute defects.
3. Difficult to cast objects requiring cores.
4.Longer production cycle as compared to other casting processes
3.1.3 Continuous Casting:-
Continuous Casting

Used for round Ingots, billets, slabs, and sheets of low carbon steel, Al and Copper
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
Vacuum Casting
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-
 3.1.4 Vacuum Casting:-

Advantages of Vacuum Casting

1. In vacuum mold casting manufacture there is no need for special molding sands or binders.
2. Sand recovery and reconditioning, a common problem in metal casting industry, is very easy
due to the lack of binders and other agents in the sand.
3. When manufacturing parts by vacuum mold casting the sand mold contains no water, so
moisture related metal casting defects are eliminated.
4. The size of risers can be significantly reduced for this metal casting process, making it more
efficient in the use of material.
5. Casting manufacture by vacuum molding is a relatively slow process.
6. Vacuum mold casting is not well suited to automation.
3.1.5 Permanent Mould Casting/Gravity Die casting
Permanent Mould Casting/Gravity Die casting
 3.1.5 Permanent Mould Casting/Gravity Die
casting :-

Materials that can be cast by Permanent Mold Casting

Common casting metals are aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys.
Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are
also cast in graphite molds.

Applications
Gears, splines, wheels, gear housings, pipe fittings, fuel injection
housings, oil pump bodies and automotive engine pistons
3.1.6 Pressure Die casting :-
Pressure Die casting
 3.2 Role of chills in casting process

A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal

casting mold. Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to
thickness of the casting. When the geometry of the molding cavity
prevents directional solidification from occurring naturally, a chill can be
strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of
chills: internal and external chills
3.2 Role of chills in casting process
 3.2 Role of chills in casting process

Material of Chills

Chills can be made of many materials, including

iron, copper, bronze, aluminum, graphite, and silicon carbide. Other sand
materials with higher densities, thermal conductivity or thermal capacity can
also be used as a chill. For example, chromite sand or zircon sand can be
used when molding with silica sand.
3.3 Casting Defects

Casting defects may be due to:

(a) improper pattern design,
(b) improper mould and core construction,
(c) improper melting practice,
(d) improper pouring practice and
(e) Because of molding and core making materials.
(f) Improper gating system
(g) Improper metal composition
(h) Inadequate melting temp and rate of pouring
It creates a deficiency or imperfection.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Surface defects
Due to design and quality of sand molds and general cause is poor ramming.

Blow:
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal form.
 3.3 Casting Defects

Scar:
Due to improper permeability or venting. A scare is a shallow blow. It generally occurs on flat surf;
whereas a blow occurs on a convex casting surface.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Scab:
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled
by metal. When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be disengaged with such violence as to break up
the sand which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled with metal. The reasons can be: - to fine
sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven moulds ramming.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Drop:
Drop or crush in a mould is an irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a casting. This defect is
caused by the break-away of a part of mould sand as a result of weak packing of the mould, low strength of
the molding sand, malfunctioning of molding equipment, strong jolts and strikes at the flask when assembling
the mould.
The loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either on the top or bottom
surface of the casting, depending upon the relative densities of the sand and the liquid.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Penetration:
It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting which results from insufficient refractoriness
of molding materials, a large content of impurities, inadequate mould packing and poor quality of mould
washes.
 3.3 Casting Defects

Buckle:
A buckle is a long, fairly shallow, broad, vee depression that occurs in the surface of flat castings.
It extends in a fairly straight line across the entire flat surface. It results due to the sand expansion
caused by the heat of the metal, when the sand has insufficient hot deformation. It also results
from poor casting design providing too large a flat surface in the mold cavity. Buckling is
prevented by mixing cereal or wood flour to sand.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Blow holes:
Blow holes, gas holes or gas cavities are well rounded cavities having a clean and smooth surface. They
appear either on the casting surface or in the body of a casting. These defects occur when an excessive
evolved gas is not able to flow through the mould. So, it collects into a bubble at the high points of a
mould cavity ad prevents the liquid metal from filling that space.

Pin holes:
Pin holes are small gas holes either at the surface or just below the surface. When these are present, they
occur in large numbers and are fairly uniformly dispersed over the surface. This defect occurs due to gas
dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not properly degassed.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Wash:
A cut or wash is a low; projection on the drag face of a casting that extends along the surface, decreasing in
height as it extends from one side of the casting to the other end. It usually occurs with bottom gating
castings in which the molding sand has insufficient hot strength, and when too much metal is made to flow
through one gate into the mold cavity.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Rat tail:
A rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression in the surface of a flat rating and resembles a buckle,
except that, it is not shaped like a broad vee. The reasons for this defect are the same for buckle.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Hot tear:
Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in the form of irregular crevices with a dark oxidized fracture
surface. They arise when the solidifying met does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces
produced during solidification.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Shrinkage:
A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an internal void in a casting that results from the volume contraction that
occurs during solidification.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Swell:
A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found on vertical faces of castings, resulting from liquid metal
pressure. It may be due to low strength of mould because of too high a water content or when the mould is
not rammed sufficiently.
 3.3 Casting Defects
Shift:
Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative to the
drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at the parting line. Core shift is similar to mold
shift, but it is the core that is displaced, and (he dis-placement is usually vertical. Core shift and
mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the molten metal
 3.3 Casting Defects
Misrun or cold sheet or short run:
This defect is incomplete cavity filling. The reasons can be: - inadequate metal supply, too- low mould
or melt temperature, improperly designed gates, .or length to thickness ratio of the casting is too large.
When molten metal is flowing from one side in a thin section, it may loose sufficient heat resulting in
loss of its fluidity, such that the leading edge of the stream may freeze before it reaches the end of the
cavity.
 3.4 Metallurgical Considerations in Casting :-

The quality of casting produced and the defects occurring during casting process
depends upon various metallurgical phenomenon occurring during casting process:-
solidification process, solidification, directional solidification, contraction hot spots,
process of crystallization and grain formation etc. Following factors must be considered
in this regard:-
a. Thermal Properties of mold
b. Freezing range of metal,
c. Thermal conductivity of metal
d. The effect of solidification on temperature of metal
e. Prevention of shrinkage and effect of riser
 3.5 Cleaning and Finishing of Casting

Cleaning involves :-
1. Hand Methods – Wire Brush, File etc
2. Mechanical Methods - Tumbling, Sand blasting, Shot blasting, Hydro blasting
3. Chemical Cleaning
 3.5 Cleaning and Finishing of Casting :-
Finishing involves :-

1. Grinding
2. Rotary Filing
3. Machining
4. Chemical Treatment
5. Polishing
6. Brushing
7. Buffing
8. Painting
3.6 Inspection and Testing of Casting :-

Inspection and Testing of Casting

It Includes:-
1. Visual Inspection
2. Sound Test
3. Pressure Test
4. Fluorescent Powder Inspection
5. Magnetic Particle Inspection
6. X –Ray Examination
7. Ultrasonic Testing
 Applications
The list below shows the main application fields (industry category).
• Factory automation
• Packaging machine
• Industrial robots
• Food processing machine
• Car production machine
• Machine tool industry
• Material handling
• Printing machine
• Automatic cutting / welding machine
• Machine for medical/cosmetic field
• Construction machine
 FAQ

1. Which process is called lost waxing method? Why?

2. What is the function of core prints ?
3. State any four types of patterns.
4. What are the pattern materials?
5. What are the applications of casting ?
6. Name the materials for making patterns
7. List the various alloys and metal used in pattern
8. List the three forms of contraction.
 References
• Text Books :
1. P.N.Rao, Manufacturing Technology ( Tata McGraw Hill )
2. P.C.Sharma, A text book of Production Technology ( S Chand Publication )
3. R.K. Rajput, A Text book of Manufacturing Technology ( Laxmi Publications )
• Reference Books:
1. Heine ,RW , CR Loper and Rosenthal, Principles of Metal Casting ( McGraw Hill –NewYork)
2. Amitabha Ghosh &Asok Kumar Malik, Manufacturing Science (Affiliated East West Press Pvt. Ltd.)
3. S. Kalpakjian & Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (Pearson)
 THANK YOU

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