LECTURE # __

DATE __/01/18

OR
FLUID STATICS

Forwarded by Huzaifa
Arqam

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 OBJECTIVE OF THIS CHAPTER:

 Fluid Statics deals with fluids at rest while Fluid Dynamics

studies fluids in motion. In this chapter we discuss Fluid
Statics. A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any
force developed is only due to normal stresses i.e., pressure.
Such a condition is termed the hydrostatic condition. In fact,
the analysis of hydrostatic systems is greatly simplified when
compared to that for fluids in motion.

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 OBJECTIVE OF THIS CHAPTER:

 Though fluid in motion gives rise to many interesting

phenomena, fluid at rest is by no means less important. Its
importance becomes apparent when we note that the
atmosphere around us can be considered to be at rest and so
are the oceans. The simple theory developed here finds its
application in determining pressures at different levels of
atmosphere and in many pressure-measuring devices. The
other application of the theory is in the calculation of forces
on dams and other hydraulic systems.

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 PRESSUREEEEE……?????

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 PRESSURE

 PRESSURE OF A FLUID:
 When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all point
on the sides and bottom and top of the container. The force per
unit area is called pressure.

F N
P   Pascal  2
A m

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 PRESSURE
 PRESSURE HEAD OF A LIQUID:
 The pressure exerted by the liquid due to its height is called
pressure head.
 The pressure head is expressed in terms of length units e.g. feet,
inch and meter.
 Mathematically,

N
P  wh  2
m
where,
 kg m   kg .m 1  N
w  g   3  2    2  3   3
m s   s m  m
6 h  meter  m
 PRESSURE
 P= Intensity of pressure
w=Specific weight of water.
h= height of liquid
 As , the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will
vary directly with depth
 Hence, the intensity of pressure of a liquid may be expressed
in the following two ways:
 As a force per unit area (i.e. N/m2)
 As an equivalent static head (i.e. meter, Inch, feet of liquid)

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 NUMERICALS

 Example 1: find the pressure at a depth of 15m below the

free surface of water in a reservoir. (Specific weight of water
is 9.81 kN/m3)

 Example 2: find the height of water column corresponding

to a pressure of 54 kN/m2

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

 The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces

with which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric
pressure’.

 The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute pressure)

is called ‘Standard atmospheric pressure’.

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 GAUGE PRESSURE:

 It is a pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring

instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

 Pressure above atmospheric pressure is positive gauge pressure

and pressure below atmospheric pressure is negative pressure
(vacuum pressure).

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 VACUUM PRESSURE:
 The pressure below the atmospheric pressure

 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE:
 Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of pressure is
termed as an absolute pressure.
 A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vacuum.

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 Mathematically:

 1. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Gauge pressure

 i.e. Pabs  Patm  Pgauge

 2. Vacuum pressure= Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 UNITS OF PRESSURE:
 101.3 kPa
 101.3 kN/m2
 10.3 m of water
 760 mm of mercury
 1.013 bar
 14.7 psi
 760 torr

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 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE:
 Example 3: Express a pressure of 155 kPa as an absolute
pressure. The local atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa.

 Example 4: Express a pressure of 10.9 psia as a gauge

pressure. The local atmospheric pressure is 15 psia.

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 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
 The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following
devices:
 MANOMETERS:
 The devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same and other liquid.
 These are classified as follows:
 Simple manometer
 Piezometer
 U-tube manometer
 Single column manometer
 Differential manometer

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 MANOMETERS
 SIMPLE MANOMETERS:

 A simple manometer is one which consists of a glass tube whose

one end is connected to a point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere.

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 MANOMETERS
 PIEZOMETER

 Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers. It can

be used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids. The setup
of piezometer consists of a glass tube, inserted in the wall of a
vessel or of a pipe. The tube extends vertically upward to such a
height that liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing. The
pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of
the liquid in the tube above that point.

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 PIEZOMETER
 Pressure at point A can be computed by measuring the height
to which the liquid rises in the glass tube. The pressure at
point A is given by p = wh, where w is the specific weight of
the liquid

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 PIEZOMETER
 LIMITATIONS OF PIEZOMETER
1. Piezometers can measure gauge pressures only. It is not
suitable for measuring negative pressures.

2. Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in

the lighter liquids are to be measured since this would
require very long tubes, which cannot be handled
conveniently.

3. Gas pressures cannot be measured with piezometers,

because a gas forms no free surface.

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 U-Tube Manometer:
 Piezometer cannot be employed when large pressure in the
lighter liquids is to be measured

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 U-Tube Manometer:
 For positive pressure:
 Let, A is the point at which pressure is to be measured. X-X
is the datum line as show in above figure.
 Let,
 h1= height of the light liquid above datum line.
 h2= height of the heavy liquid above datum line.
 h= pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head.
 S1= specific gravity of light liquid.
 S2= specific gravity of heavy liquid.

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 U-Tube Manometer:
 The pressures in the lift limb and the right limb above datum
line X-X are equal.
 Pressure head above X-X in the lift limb= h + h1 S1
 Pressure head above X-X in the right limb= h2 S2
So,
h + h1 S1 = h2 S2
or
h = h2 S2 - h1 S1

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 U-Tube Manometer:
 For negative pressure:
 Pressure head above X-X in the lift limb= h + h1 S1 + h2 S2
 Pressure head above X-X in the right limb= 0
So,
h + h1 S1 + h2 S2 = 0
or
h = - (h1 S1 + h2 S2)

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 NUMERICALS
 Example 5: A U-tube manometer is used to measure
the pressure of oil of sp. gravity 0.85 flowing in a pipe
line. Its left end is connected to the pipe and the right
limb is open to atmosphere. The centre of the pipe line is
100 mm below the level of mercury (sp. gravity 13.6) in
the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the
two limbs is 160mm, determine the absolute pressure of
the oil in the pipe.

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26
 NUMERICALS
 Example 6: U-tube manometer containing mercury
was used to find the negative pressure in the pipe,
containing water. The right limb was open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe, if the
difference to mercury level in the two limbs was 100mm
and the height of the water in the lift limb from the
centre of the pipe was found to be 40mm below.

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28
 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
 A differential manometer is used to measure the difference in
pressures between two points in a pipe, or in two different
pipes. In its simplest form a differential manometers consists
of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of pressures is
required to be found out. Following are the most commonly
used types of differential manometers:

 U-tube differential manometer

 Inverted U-tube differential manometer.

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 U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER
 CASE 1:
 Fig. (a) shows a differential manometer whose two ends are
connected with two different points A and B at the same level
and containing same liquid.
Let,
 h = Difference of the centre of A, form the mercury level in the
right limb,
 S1 = S2 = Specific gravity of liquid at the points A and B
 S = Specific gravity of heavy liquid at the two point A and B
 hA = pressure head at A, and
 hB = pressure head at B

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 U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER
We know that the pressure in the left limb and right limb,
above the datum line, are equal.
 Pressure head in left limb
= hA + (h1 + h) S1
 Pressure head in right limb
= hB + h1 S1 + h S
 Both equations are equal;
hA + (h1 + h) S1 = hB + h1 S1 + h S
hA – hB = h1 * S1 + h * S - (h1 + h) S1
 Difference of pressure head:
hA – hB = h (S – S1)
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 U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER
 CASE 2:
 Figure (b) shows a differential manometer whose two ends are
connected to two different points A and B at different levels and
containing different liquids.
 h= difference of mercury level (heavy liquid) in the U-tube
 h1= distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the left
limb,
 h2= distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right
limb,
 S1 = specific gravity of liquid in pipe A,
 S2 = specific gravity of liquid in pipe B,
 S= specific gravity of heavy liquid or mercury,
 hA = pressure head at A, and
 hB = pressure head at B,
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34
 U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER
 Considering the pressure heads above the datum line X-X,
we get
 Pressure head in the left limb
= hA + (h1 + h) * S1
 Pressure head in the left limb
= hB + h2 * S2 + h * S
 Equating both equation:
hA + (h1 + h) * S1 = hB + h2 * S2 + h * S
hA - hB = h2 * S2 + h * S - (h1 + h) * S1
 Difference of pressure head at A and B,
hA - hB = h (S - S1) + h2 * S2 – h1 * S1
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 NUMERICALS
 A differential manometer connected at the point
A and B in a pipe connecting an oil of specific
gravity 0.9, shows a difference in mercury levels
as 150mm. Find the difference in pressures at the
two points.

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 Specific gravity 0.9`

150mm
Specific gravity 13.6

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 NUMERICALS
 Figure shows a differential manometer
connected at two points A and B. At A air
pressure is 100 kN/m2. Find the absolute
pressure at B.

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 INVERTED U-TUBE
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
 This type off manometer is used for measuring difference of
two pressure where accuracy is the major consideration.
 Measuring liquid is heavier than liquid of manometer.
 Use to measure low pressure difference.
 It is consist of an inverted U-tube, containing light liquid,
whose two ends are connected to the point whose difference
of pressure is to be found out.

 Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.

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 INVERTED U-TUBE
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
LET,
 h= difference of level of the light liquid in the U-tube.
 h1= height of the liquid in the left limb below datum line X-X,
 h2=height of the liquid in the right limb below datum line X-X,
 S1 = specific gravity of liquid in the left limb.
 S2 = specific gravity of liquid in the left limb.
 S= specific gravity of light liquid
 hA = pressure head at A, and
 hB = pressure head at B,

hA  hB  h1S1  h2 S2  hS
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 NUMERICALS
 An inverted differential manometer having an oil
of specific gravity 0.8 connected to two different
pipes caring water under pressure. Determine the
pressure in the pipe B. the pressure in the pipe A
is 2.0 meter of water.

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 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION
OF MANOMETER
 ADVANTAGES:
1. Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive.
2. Good accuracy
3. High sensitivity
4. Require little maintenance
5. Not affected by vibration
6. Specially suitable for low pressure difference.
7. It is easy to change the sensitivity by changing
manometric fluid.

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 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION
OF MANOMETER
 LIMITATIONS
1. Usually bulky and large in size
2. Being fragile, get broken easily.
3. Reading of manometer are affected by changes inn
temperature, altitude and gravity.
4. A capillary effect is created due to surface tension of
manometric fluid.
5. For better accuracy meniscus has to be measured by
accurate means.

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 MECHANICAL GAUGE:
 Mechanical gauge are the devices in which
the pressure is measured by balancing the
fluid column by spring or dead weight.
 Some of important type of these gauges are:
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
2. Diaphragm gauge
3. Vacuum gauge

Forwarded by
Huzaifa Arqam

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 VIDEOS

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 DECANTERS
 CONTINUOUS GRAVITY DECANTER:
 A gravity decanter is used for the continuous separation of two
immiscible liquids of different densities.
 The feed mixture enters at one end if the separator; the two
liquids flow slowly through the vessel, separate into two layers
and discharge through overflow lines at the other end of the
separator.

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 DECANTERS
 CONTINUOUS GRAVITY DECANTER:
 ZA1 = the depth of the layer of heavy liquid with density ρA.
 ZB = the depth of the layer of light liquid with density ρB.
 ZT = total depth of the liquid.

Z B B  Z A1 A  Z A2  A
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 NUMERICALS
 A horizontal cylindrical continuous decanter is to separate
1500 bbl/day (9.93 m3/hr) of a liquid petroleum fraction
from an equal volume of wash acid. The oil is the continuous
phase and at the operating temperature has a viscosity of 1.1
cP and a density of 54 lb/ft3 (865 kg/m3). The density of the
acid is 72 lb/ft3 (1153 kg/m3).
 Compute (a) the size of the vessel and (b) the height of acid
overflow above vessel floor.

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 B  This final equation shows that
Z A1  Z A 2  Z B the position of the liquid-liquid
A
interface in the separator is
B depend on the ratio of the
Z A1  Z A 2   ZT  Z A1  densities of two liquids.
A
 The size of a decanter is
ZT  Z B  Z A1 established by the time
 B B  required for separation.
Z A1  Z A 2   ZT  Z A1   The separation time may be
 A A 
estimated from the empirical
B B equation.
Z A1  Z A1  Z A 2  ZT 100 
A A t
B
 A  B
Z A 2  ZT  t is in hours
A  Viscosity is in Centi-poise
Z A1 
B  Densities are in kg/m3
1 
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A
 CENTRIFUGAL DECANTER
 When the difference between the densities of the two liquids
is small, the force of gravity may be too weak to separate the
liquid in a reasonable time.
 In this case the separation may then be accomplished in a
liquid-liquid centrifuge.

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54
 CENTRIFUGAL DECANTER
 Assume that the heavy liquid, of density ρA, overflows the
dam at the radius rA and the light liquid, of density ρB, leaves
through port at radius rB . Then if both liquids rotate with the
bowl and frication is negligible, the pressure difference in the
light liquid between rB and ri must be equal that in the heavy
liquid between rA and ri . The principle is exactly the same as
in a continuous gravity decanter.
 Thus:
pi - pB = pi – pA

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 CENTRIFUGAL DECANTER
 Where
 Pi = pressure at liquid-liquid interface
 PB = pressure at free surface of light liquid at rB
 PA = pressure at free surface of heavy liquid at rA
2
centrifugal force = m.w .r
dF  w2 r.dm
m  V
dm   .dV
b  width of liquid
dm   (2 br.dr ) volume  2 rb
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 CENTRIFUGAL DECANTER
dF   (2 r 2 .dr )( w2 r )  w2
Pi  PB  (ri  rB )
2 2
dF  2 w r .dr 2 3
2
dP 
dF w 22

A Pi  PA  (ri  rA 2 )
2
2 w2 r 3 .dr
dP  As,
2 r 2
dP   w2 r.dr Pi  PB  Pi  PA
r2
solving for ri :
P   w  r.dr
2

r1
rA  (  B /  A )rB
2 2

w 2 ri 
P  (r2 2  r12 ) 1  B /  A
57 2