Chapter 4: Work and Heat

Thermodynamics 1
Understanding Energy
 In general is defined as capacity of a body to do
work (causes an effect).
 Exists in various forms and can be converted
from one form to another (partial or complete),
but can never be destroyed.
 Can be classified as energy in transit and energy
in storage.
 SI units: Joules

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 2
Understanding Energy
 Energy in Transit: Energy transferred as a result
of potential difference. Examples are gradient of
force, temperature and potential result in transfer
of mechanical work, heat and electrical energy
respectively.

 Stored Energy: Energy possessed by a system as

a result of its position in a force field, its motion,
its molecular structure and related activities etc.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 3
 The internal energy of
a system is the sum of
The various forms of
all forms of the
microscopic energies that
microscopic energies.
make up sensible energy
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 4
Definition of work
Force acting through a displacement s, where the
displacement is in the direction of the force.

2
W   F ds
1

1 2
But then thermodynamics talk of system and
surroundings. Hence work needs to be defined in
thermodynamic language.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 5
 Definition of Thermodynamics Work
Work is done by a system if the sole effect on the
surroundings (everything external to the system)
could be the raising of a weight.
weight.
 The definition does not call for actual raising
of a weight, but rather the possibility of a weight
being raised.
 Thermodynamic work is energy in transit and
is manifest at the system boundary only during
system-surrounding interaction.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 6
Consider as a system the battery and motor. Let the
motor drive a fan. Does work cross the boundary of
the system?

Work is crossing the boundary of the system, since

the sole effect external to the system could be the
raising of a weight.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 7
Does the work cross the boundary of the system? Or
Does the flow of electrical energy across the
boundary of a system constitute work?

We can conclude that when there is a flow of

electricity across the boundary of the system, it is
work.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 8
Units for Work

Our definition of work involves raising of a weight,

that is, the product of a unit force (one Newton)
acting through a unit distance (one meter). This unit
for work in SI is called the joule (J).
1J=1Nm

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 9
Sign Conventions
 In thermodynamics work done by a system is
positive and work done on a system is negative.

 System and surroundings do equal, but opposite

work
Wsystem + Wsurroundings = 0

 Net work done by a system is expressed as

Wnet = Wout - Win

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 10
Work Done
There are a variety of ways in which work can be
done on or by a system. These include

 Work done by a rotating shaft

 Electrical work

 Work done by the movement of the system

boundary

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 11
Work Done at the Moving Boundary
Consider as a system the gas contained in a cylinder
and piston.

The total force on the piston is PA.

Therefore, the work W is

W = FdL = (PA)dL = P(AdL) = PdV

 The work done at the moving boundary during a

given quasi-equilibrium process can be found by
integrating above equation.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 12
 This integration can be performed only if we
know the relationship between P and V during
the process.
 The relationship may be expressed in the form of
an equation, or it may be shown in the form of a
graph.

Use of pressure-volume
diagram to show work done
at the moving boundary of
system in a quasi-
equilibrium process.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 13
 The work done on the air during this
compression process can be found by
integrating
2 2

1W2   W   P dV
1 1

 The symbol 1W2 is to be interpreted as the work

done during the process from state 1 to state 2.

 It is clear from P-V diagram that the work done

during the process is represented by the area
under the curve 1-2, area a-1-2-b-a. This area
represents work done on the system.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 14
 Various quasi-
equilibrium
processes
between two
given states.
 The area underneath each curve represents the
work for each process.
 The amount of work done during each process
depends on the path that is followed in going
from one state to another. For this reason work is
called a path function.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 15
Thermodynamic properties are point functions. Thus
there is a definite value of a property corresponding
to each state. The differentials of point functions are
exact differentials, and the integration is simply


1
dV V 2  V1

The differentials of path functions are inexact

differentials. Thus, for work, we write
2

 W  W
1
1 2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 16
Important Points
 Work done in a process is not only a function of
the two end states, but it also depends on the path
followed in going from one state to another.

 Work is a path function and W is an inexact

differential.

 Thus 1W2 =  W  W2 – W1. Hence never speak of

work in state 1 or state 2. There is only Win and
Wout which is work in transit.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 17
Polytropic Process
For many expansion and compression processes, the
path of the process may be modeled as a polytropic
process. For this process the system pressure and
volume are related by the polytropic relation

n
PV =C

where C is the constant and the parameter n is

known as the polytropic constant. Although n can
take on any value, the relation is especially useful
when 1 ≤ n ≤ 5/3.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 18
PV  C  PV  PV
n
2 2 1 1
n n

n n
C PV PV
P  n  1 n1  2 n2
V V V
2
2 2
dV V 
 n 1

1 P dV  C 1 V n  C  n  1 
1
1 n 1 n

2 n n

1 P dV 
C
1 n
V2
1 n
 V1
1 n
 
P V
2 2 V2

1 n
P V
1 1 V1

P2 V2  P1 V1
1 W2 
1 n

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 19
Hyperbolic Process
For a process following hyperbolic law,
PV  C  P1 V1  P2 V2
2 2 2
dV dV V2
1 PdV  C 1 V P1 V1 1 V  PV
1 1 ln
V1
V2 V2
1W2  PV
1 1 ln or P2 V2 ln
V1 V1
P1 P1
 PV
1 1 ln or P2 V2 ln
P2 P2
Note that the hyperbolic process becomes an
isothermal process for an ideal gas at constant
temperature Pv = RT = C
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 20
Constant Pressure Process
1 2
P = Constant P

1W2 =  W = PdV = P dV 1W2

1W2 = P (V2 – V1)
V

Constant Volume Process

1
P
V = Constant, dV = 0
2
1W2 = 0
V

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 21
(E 4.1) Consider as a system the gas in the cylinder
as shown below. The cylinder is fitted with a piston
on which a number of small weights are placed. The
initial pressure is 200 kPa and the initial volume of
the gas is 0.04 m3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 22
(a) Let a Bunsen burner be placed under the
cylinder, and let the volume of the volume of the
gas increase to 0.1 m3 while the pressure remains
constant. Calculate the work done by the system
during the process.
2 2
W2    W   P dV
1
1 1
Since the pressure is constant, we conclude
2
W2   P dV  P V2  V1 
1
1

W
1 2  200 kPa   0.1-0.04   12.0 kJ
m 3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 23
(b) Consider the same system and initial conditions,
but the same time as the Bunsen burner is under the
cylinder and piston is rising, let weights be removed
from the piston at such a rate that, during the
process, temperature of the gas remains constant.
This is a polytropic process with exponent n = 1
2 2
dV V2
1W2   PdV  P1 V1   PV
1 1 ln
1 1
V V1
0.10
 200 kPa  0.04 m  ln
3
 7.33 kJ
0.04
P2  PV
1 1 / V2   200 kPa  0.04 m 3
 / 0.1 m 3
 80 kPa

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 24
 (c) Consider the same system, but during the heat
transfer let the weights be removed at such a rate
that the expression PV1.3 = C describes the relation
between pressure and volume during the process.
Again the final volume is 0.1 m3. Calculate the
work.
This is a polytropic process with exponent n = 1.3
n
 V1 
1.3
 0.04 
P2  P1    200    60.77 kPa
 V2   0.1 
P2 V2  P1 V1 60.77  0.1 - 200  0.04
2

1W2   P dV    6.41 kJ
1
1 n 1 - 1.3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 25
(d) Consider the same system and initial state given
in the first three examples, but let the piston be held
by a pin so that the volume remains constant. In
addition, let heat be transferred from the system
until the pressure drops to 100 kPa. Calculate the
work.
Since δW = PdV for a quasi-equilibrium process,
the work is zero, because there is no change in
volume.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 26
Pressure – volume
diagram showing
work done in the
various process of
example problem

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 27
(E 4.2) The piston is loaded with a mass, mp, the
outside atmosphere Po, a linear spring, and a single
point force F1. The piston traps the gas inside with a
pressure P.
The force balance on the piston in the
direction of motion
m p a  0   F  F 
with a zero acceleration in a quasi-equilibrium
process.

 F  PA,  F   m g  P A  k  x  x   F
p o s o 1

with the spring constant, ks .

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 28
The force balance then gives the gas pressure
P  Po   m p g  ks  x  xo   F1  / A
mp g F1 ks V  Vo 
P  Po    2
 C1  C2V
A A A
This relation gives the pressure as a linear function of volume,
with the line having a slope of C2  ks / A2 .
The work term in a quasi-equilibrium
process
2
W2   P dV  area under the process curve
1
1

1
1W2   P1  P2 V2  V1 
2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 29
(E 4.3) The cylinder/piston setup contains 0.5 kg
ammonia at -20oC with a quality of 25%. The
ammonia is now heated to +20oC, at which state the
volume is observed to be 1.41 times larger. Find the
final pressure and the work the ammonia produced.

State 1: T1  20o C, x1  0.25

From Table B.2.1 (692) 
P1  Psat  190.2 kPa
v1  v f  x1v fg  0.001504  0.25  0.62184
 0.15696 m /kg
3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 30
State 2: T1  20o C, v2  1.41 v1  0.2213 m3 /kg
v2  vg @ 20o C (0.14922 m3 /kg)  Superheated vapour
From Table B.2.2 state very close to P2  600 kPa
The process: P  C1  C2V
2
1
1W2   P dV   P1  P2 V2  V1 
1
2
1
 m  P1  P2  v2  v1 
2
1
 0.5 kg 190.2  600  kPa  0.2213  0.15696  m3 /kg
2
 12.71 kJ
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 31
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 32
(E 4.4) The cylinder/piston setup contains 0.1 kg of
water at 1000 kPa, 500oC. The water is cooled with
a constant force on the piston until it reaches half
the initial volume. After this it cools to 25oC while
the piston is against the stops. Find the final water
pressure and the work in the overall process, and
show the process in a P- v diagram.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 33
State 1: P1  1000 kPa, T1  500 C
o

T  Tsat@1000 KPa  superheated

From table B.1.3  1  0.35411 m /kg
3

State 1a: P1a  1000 kPa, v1a  v1 / 2  0.17706 m /kg

3

From table B.1.2  v f  v1a  vg @1000 kPa 

so it is a saturated mixture  T1a  Tsat @1000 kPa  179.91o C
State 2: v2  0.17706 m /kg, T2  25 C
3 o

From table B.1.1  v f  v2 < vg @25o C  saturated mixture

P2  Psat @25o C  3.169 kPa

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 34
 2 2
W2   P dV  m  P dv mP1  v1a  v1   0
1
1 1

W
1 2  0.1kg  1000 kPa   0.17706 - 0.35411 /kg
m 3

 17.7 kJ

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 35
Reversible and Irreversible Process
 A process is reversible if it can be completely
reversed, i.e. when carried out in the opposite
direction the system follows the same
succession of states as it followed in the forward
direction (very crude definition).
 A process is reversible if after the process
occurs, the system can be restored to its original
state without any effect on its surroundings.
 This effect occurs only when the driving force is
infinitesimally small.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 36
 When a process is reversible, interaction between
system and surroundings are equal and opposite
in direction, i.e., both system and surroundings
are restored to initial conditions.

 A reversible process leaves no history of the

process after it is reversed.

 No friction involved.

 The processes represent idealization and are never

realized in real life.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 37
 A process which is not reversible is irreversible.

 Irreversible processes are carried out with finite

driving forces and with friction.

 A system can be restored to its original state, but

it’s surroundings must be altered.

 Irreversibility is caused by friction, unrestrained

expansion, mixing of substances, combustion,
flow of electricity through a resistor, heat transfer
over a finite temperature difference etc.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 38
Work Done in an Irreversible Process
 Not all processes confirm to idealized quasi-
equilibrium conditions. Actual process are
inherently irreversible, i.e. surroundings are
altered even when system returns to original state.

 A process may be irreversible essentially in two

ways,
 non-equilibrium irreversible.

 irreversible due to friction.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 39
 In a non-equilibrium process, there is a finite
change. Path of the process is not known. Only
end states are known.

 In a process where friction is present, in which

quasi-static conditions can exist, i.e.
Pext  F/A = P
Local temperature changes due to friction near
piston cylinder contacts. Thermodynamic
equilibrium is thus absent. Work is dissipated as
heat in overcoming friction and cannot be
recovered.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 40
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 41
Work Done in a Non-Equilibrium Process
Actual case where finite weights are removed. Only
initial and final states are known. The system and
surroundings are not in equilibrium at each step.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 42
 The path for this process cannot be drawn by a
succession of equilibrium states and the
expression PdV does not represent work.
 But some work has been done because volume
has changed and this is finite change, i.e. V. It is
done against the force resisting the boundary
movement. Since the external force is constant
during this process
2
W2   Pext dV Pext V2  V1 
1
1

Note pressure Pext here is external pressure and

during the process never equal to P, the pressure
of the gas.
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 43
Work Done in a Process with Friction
Figure shows a gas at pressure P in a cylinder and
piston arrangement expanding against the external
pressure Pext of the surroundings and the frictional
force F between the piston and the cylinder, so that
any instant of time P = Pext + F/A

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 44
 In this case Pext + F/A = P or Pext - F/A = P is
possible depending on whether expansion or
compression takes place.
 For compression Pext > P and for expansion Pext <
P (P is the gas pressure)
Thus in a process with friction
 W = PextdV
where Pext = P  F/A
Less work obtained during expansion and more
work required during compression.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 45
Comparison of Work done in an Irreversible and
a Reversible Process
 Lost work = PdV - PextdV
 In the case of a reversible process, for a given
change of state, work output during expansion is
maximum and work input during compression is
minimum.
 In an irreversible process during expansion work
output is less than maximum and during
compression more than minimum.
 An irreversible process is always inferior.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 46
(Q) An insulated vertical cylinder fitted with a
piston held in a position by a pin. It contains 0.0135
m3 of R-12 saturated vapor at 30oC. The diameter of
the cylinder is 9 cm. The mass of the piston is 90 kg.
The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 47
The pin is now suddenly removed. The piston
oscillates after a period of time when the final
temperature is found to be equal to the initial
temperature.
(a) Determine the final pressure and volume of
the system.
State 1: V1  0.0135 m3 , T1  30o C  Tsat , Saturated Vapour

Area of piston , A   0.09 m   0.006362 m 2
2

4
From Table B.3.1 698   30o C
P1  744.9 kPa,  1   g  0.02351 m / kg
3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 48
 V10.0135m3
Mass of R-12  m    0.52535 kg
 1 0.023508m /kg
3

State 2 : T2  30 Co

mg 90 kg  9.81 m/s 2
P2  Pext  Patm   100 kPa 
A 0.006362 m 2
 238.8 kPa  Psat @ T 30o C  Superheated
2

From superheat Table B.3.2 for 238.8 kPa and 30o C by

interpolation method   2  0.084022 m3 /kg

Final volume V2  m 2  0.52535 kg  0.084022 m3 /kg

 0.04414 m3

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 49
(b) Calculate the work done by R-12 during this
process.
Wirrev   Pext dV  Pext V2  V1 
 238.8 (0.04414 - 0.0135)  7.32 KJ
(c) Calculate the work done by R-12 in a reversible
process for the same change of state of the system.
2
V2
Wrev   PdV  PV
1 1 ln
1
V1
0.04414
 744.9 (0.0135) ln  11.91 kJ
0.0135

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 50
Comparison of work in a non-equilibrium, and a
reversible isothermal process between states 1 and 2

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 51
Shaft work
The work crossing the boundary of the system is that
associated with a rotating shaft.
W  Fdx  F rd  T d
that is, force acting through a distance dx or a torque
(T = Fr) acting through an angle of rotation.

 W dx d
W F  FV  F r  T
dt dt dt
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 52
Extension of a Solid Bar
Let the force be
represented as F = σ A,
where A is the cross-
sectional area of the bar
and σ the normal stress
acting at the end of the
bar.
W    A dx
2
W2     A dx
1
1

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 53
Work in Changing a Surface Area
The two surfaces of the
film support the thin
liquid layer inside by the
effect of surface tension
(τ). These forces give rise
to a force perpendicular to
any line in the surface.
F  2l 
The force per unit length
W  2 l dx, where dA  2 l dx
across such a line is the 2

1W2     dA
surface tension.
1

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 54
Electrical work
Let the potential difference be ε
and the amount of electrical
charge that flows into the system
be dZ
δW = - ε dZ
Since the current, i, equals dZ/dt
(where t = time), we can write
also write W   i dt
2

1W2     i dt
1

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 55
The Identification of work
The identification of work is an important aspect of
many thermodynamics problems. The work can be
identified only at the boundary of the system.

 Free expansion : Is a non-equilibrium adiabatic

process in which the volume of a closed system
increases.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 56
One observes that the
system boundary
moves. It is not a quasi-
equilibrium process,
and Pext = 0. Hence,
PextdV is zero, no
work is done in the
process.

Free expansion is a
process in which  PdV
is finite, but still W = 0
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 57
 Paddle Wheel Work: It is a process involving
friction in which the volume of the system does
not change at all.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 58
 As the paddle runs, work enters the system.
 It increases the stored energy of the system.
 There is no movement of the system boundary.
Hence PdV is zero, although work has been
done on the system.
 Thus, PdV does not represent work for this
case.
 So work may be done on a closed system even
though there is no volume change.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 59
Heat (Q)
Transfer of energy as a result of temperature
difference between system and surrounding. Heat
can be identified only as it crosses the boundary.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 60
The amount of heat transferred, when a system
undergoes a change from state 1 to state 2 depends
on the path that the system follows during the
change of state. 2

 Q 
1
1 Q2

1Q2 is the heat transferred during the given process

between states 1 and 2.
The rate at which heat is transferred to a system is
given by
Q
Q
dt
Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 61
Methods of Heat Transfer
The three modes of heat transfer are
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 62
Conduction
Fourier' s law of conduction
 dT
Q  K A
dx

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 63
Convection
Newton' s law of cooling

Q  h A T

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 64
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from
the surface of one body to the surface of another in
the form of electromagnetic waves.
Q  AT 4  T 4 
rad s surr

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 65
Comparison of Heat and Work
 Heat and work are both transient phenomena.
Systems never possess heat or work.
 Both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
They are observed only at the boundaries of the
system.
 Both heat and work are path functions and
inexact differentials.

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 66
Which Cross the boundary of the system,
heat or work?

An example showing the difference

between heat and work

Thermodynamics – Chapter 4 67
When a process proceeds in a
very slow manner that the
system remains infinitesimally
close to equilibrium state at all
times, it is called a quasi-static,
or quasi-equilibrium process.

68
Sudden Expansion and Quasi-Static Expansion

69
 Pext

Fext mp g
Pext   P0 
A A
2
W2   Pext dV  Pext V2  V1 
1
1

70
Sudden Expansion and Quasi-Static Expansion
Let us consider a system of gas contained in
cylinder. The gas held by a moving piston. A weight
W is placed over the piston. Due to the weight , the
gas in cylinder is compressed. After the gas reaches
equilibrium, the properties of gas are denoted by p1,
v1, t1. The weight placed over the piston is balanced
by upward force exerted by the gas.

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Sudden Expansion and Quasi-Static Expansion
If the weight is removed, then there will be
unbalanced force between the system and the
surroundings. The gas under pressure will expand
and push the piston upward till it touches the
stops. The properties at this state after reaching
equilibrium are p2,v2,t2. But the intermediate states
passed through by the system are non-equilibrium
states which cannot be described by thermodynamic
coordinates. In this case we only have initial and
final states and do not have a path connecting them.

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Sudden Expansion and Quasi-Static Expansion
Suppose, the weight is made of large numbers of
small weights. And one by one each of these small
weights are removed and allowed the system to
reach an equilibrium state. Then we have
intermediate equilibrium states and the path
described by these sates will not deviate much from
the thermodynamic equilibrium state. Such a
process, which is the locus of all the intermediate
points passed by the system is known as Quasi-static
process.

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