 It is important that engines operate as efficiently as

practicable due to high fuel cost and to reduce harmful

emissions.
 Enhanced efficiency can be achieved through new
equipment and systems or by improved operating
procedures.
 Appropriate equipment are installed to monitor engine
operating efficiency (power output and fuel consumption)
and to ascertain the effects of changes in operating
procedures.
 This analysis is focused on propulsion and auxiliary power
systems driven by diesel engines, since this is the most
common solution employed on ships
 Diesel propulsion for commercial oceangoing ships is
primarily low-speed diesel engines and medium-speed
diesel engines.
 Smaller ships, tugs, ferries and high-speed craft can have
high-speed diesel engines (RPM over 1,400). Auxiliary
engines used to drive generators for the ship’s electrical
power are most often medium-speed engines.
 The efficiency of diesel and gas engines ranges between 42-52%,
depending on the engine type.
 The peak efficiency of 52% for the best engines is one of the highest
efficiency ratings among existing prime movers.
 Efficiency Improvement is becoming more challenging as the
emission requirements are getting increasingly stringent.
 One key success factor in this field has been the development of
integrated engine functionalities that enable low emissions and high
engine efficiency.
 The air and fuel admissions is controlled by an automated system
that provides optimal combustion under all operative conditions. This
contributes to engine efficiency directly and positively.
The reasons for selection of a specific propulsion system for
a particular ship are;
- The size of the ship,
- Its power relative to its draft,
- Number of propellers fitted,
- Special maneuverability requirements,
- Special operating profiles, and others.
 Where fuel efficiency is the primary goal, low-speed diesel
engines would be the first choice since they have the
lowest specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC) of the diesel
engine choices.
 For low-speed diesel engines, more than half the energy
content of the fuel is converted to mechanical energy and
can be directly transmitted to the propeller
 Fuel efficiency can reach up to 55 percent in the current
state of technology.
 Medium-speed diesel engines have slightly higher SFOC and
slightly lower efficiency, usually about 3 to 4 percent lower at
similar power levels.
 Medium-speed engines must be connected to the propeller
through a speed reducing transmission system (either a
reduction gear or an electric drive system)
 When connected to the propeller through a gearbox there is
about a 2 percent loss in power delivered to the propeller and
when connected to the propeller through an electric drive
system there is about a 10 percent loss in power delivered to
the propeller.
 Considering these losses in power transmission means that
for the same propeller power, medium speed diesel
engines must develop about 2 percent more power in the
geared design, and about 11 percent more in the electric
drive design.
 This increase in required power coupled with the higher
SFOC for medium-speed diesel engines may result in
increased fuel consumption over the low-speed diesel for
the same power at design condition and propeller rpm.
 Electric power may be developed aboard ship by a generator
attached to the main propulsion engine or by generators driven
by independent diesel engines.
 Whether or not the ship has a main engine-driven generator, it
will still require additional generators that are normally driven
by medium-speed or in some cases high-speed, diesel engines.
 Generators for AC power are driven at a constant speed that is
found by dividing 7,200 (for 60 Hz) or 6,000 (for 50 Hz) by the
number of poles.
 Fuel efficiency of high-speed diesels is lower than
medium-speed diesels, which is the reason medium-speed
diesels are preferred where practical.
 Large auxiliary engines driving generators for electric
drive ships would typically operate at 514.3 rpm (14
poles/60Hz) or 500 rpm (12 poles/50 Hz).
 Diesel engines providing power for ship service
generators would typically have speeds between 720 and
1,000 rpm, depending on the AC frequency selected
The development of reliable microprocessors and computer
controls has made it possible to electronically control the;
- fuel injection timing,
- fuel injection quantity and,
- on low-speed diesel engines, exhaust valve timing.
 This has changed the traditional camshaft-driven fuel
injection pumps and valve hydraulic pumps to high
pressure common mains or rails with solenoid valves that
are opened and closed by the electronic control system.
 The servo hydraulic system which powers exhaust valve
operation and the fuel injection pumps is the key to the
functioning of the electronically controlled engine.
 Fig. 1.3 shows a comparison of SFOC between a
conventional engine (camshaft control of injection) and an
electronically controlled engine, also referred to as a
common rail engine since the fuel is supplied to the
injectors from a high-pressure common rail (pipe) along
the side of the engine.
 The enhanced fuel efficiency at low and medium loads is
due to better control over the injection and exhaust valve
timing.
 Electronically controlled engines can meet the MARPOL Annex VI
Tier II NOx requirements with greater ease.
 Methods that reduce SFOC by increasing compression and
temperatures in the cylinder will increase NOx levels, so
conventional Tier II compliant engines have a higher SFOC to
achieve the required weighted NOx levels across the power
spectrum.
 With electronic control it is possible to reduce NOx at lower power
levels, making it possible to achieve lower overall SFOC while still
remaining within the weighted NOx levels required for Tier II
compliance.
 This is the primary reason that lower overall SFOC can be
achieved for Tier II electronically controlled engines.
Sequential turbocharging
 Special exhaust gas and turbocharger control equipment
are installed on some electronically controlled low-speed
diesel engines to reduce SFOC at low to medium loads.
 This can be important for ships that will be operating
consistently at less than full speed to achieve lower fuel
consumption or to suit service requirements.
 To achieve this reduction requires special turbochargers -
two-stage turbocharging is important in achieving an
environmentally sound solutions of engine fuel efficiency
development.
 The system can be tuned for partial load operation (65 to 85
percent MCR) or low load operation (about 50 to 65 percent
MCR). SFOC reductions of 2 to 4 g/kWh are possible.
 Action taken to lower SFOC will normally result in higher NOx
(higher cylinder pressures and temperatures lower SFOC, but
raise NOx) so Tier II NOx requirements limit possible SFOC
reductions.
 The overall SFOC decrease available from the use of the special
turbocharging optimization methods is about 3 percent at low to
medium loads.
The options for turbocharger optimization at partial and low
loads are as follows:
 Exhaust Gas Bypass (EGB) and
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
 VTA technology enables the quantity of charge air to be
more precisely matched to the quantity of fuel injected,
encouraging reduced specific fuel consumption, and
emissions, along with improved dynamic behavior of the
engine turbocharger system.
 Basically, the fixed vane ring used in standard
turbochargers are replaced with a nozzle ring equipped
with adjustable vanes making it possible to increase or
decrease the pressure level in the engine by changing the
pitch of the guide vanes.
 Fig. 1.6 shows the main components
 The pressure of the exhaust gases coming to bear on the
turbine is regulated by changing the pitch of the vanes.
 When the blow-through area is reduced in size by the
variable vane geometry, the speed of the inlet flow to the
turbine is increased, which in turn increases the
turbocharger speed, leading to an increase of the
compressor-side charge-pressure.
 Control of the vane position is fully electronic, with
feedback or open-loop control features mapped vane
adjustment.
 Each vane has a lever directly connected to a control ring,
which is actuated by an electric positional motor with
integrated reduction gear.
 The development of VTA technology has set a new standard
in boosting the efficiency of turbochargers.
 The volume of charge air can be precisely matched to the
quantity of injected fuel at all points in an engine load and
speed range.
 The result is reduced specific fuel oil consumption,
reduced emissions of HC and C𝑂2 and improved engine
response.
 VTA can be applied with low load or part load optimization.
Fuel savings up to 5g/kwh can be achieved.
Ship operation involves a variety of activities and tasks.
Some aspects are:
- Loading and Unloading
- Ballasting and de-ballasting
- Inert gas generation and top ups for crude oil and product
tankers
- Bunkering
- Maneuvering
- Stand-by
- Normal passage operation
- Waiting and anchorage
- Fresh water generation
- Potable water generation, etc.
 The nature of the above operations will vary from one ship
type to the other and also, they may vary with area of
operations and ports of calls.
 To improve fuel consumption, the requirements of various
operations need to be carefully examined and ship
machinery/resources used accordingly
Energy efficiency measures directly related to fuel
management aspect include:
 Vessels should carry the most economical amount of
bunker in inventory as transportation of extra weight will
cause extra fuel consumption.
 Energy is also used for temperature control of fuel and its
transfer. To ensure energy efficient storage and transfer,
fuel temperature in storage tanks needs to be controlled to
lowest temperature feasible in order to retain it in a fluid
condition and also suitable for transfer. In the latter case it
is only the fuel to be transferred which is to be heated.
 Steam and coil heating should only be applied as required
and not be left running unnecessarily.
 Ensure tank fittings (manhole covers, vent pipes, etc.) do
not allow water, cargo or other material to get into the fuel.
 Ensure heating coils are tight.
 Ensure that tank wall condition is in good order thus
avoiding corrosion or other material being entrained with
the fuel which then has to be removed.
 Maintain settling tanks at a temperature which will enable
the purifier heaters to achieve the required treatment
temperature.
 When a service tank is not in use it is not necessary to
maintain usual high temperatures.
 Heater controls should be checked to ensure correct
operation. Accumulations on heater elements should be
minimized.
 Periodically verify that the viscosity controller is working
correctly.
 Monitor fuel oil sludge levels and ensure that sludge levels
are not high due to poor maintenance of the purifiers. As
advocated, homogenizers can be used to reduce the sludge
levels.
 Fuel measurement and metering is the first step for
subsequent performance analysis of various engines and
boilers. The more accurately fuel consumption is measured
and reported, the more will be the chances for identifying
inefficiencies and making improvements.
 The engine’s SFOC varies with the engine load. SFOC is a
minimum (i.e. efficiency is a maximum) for a certain load level;
typically for engines it is in the range of 70 to 90% of an
engine’s Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR).
 Fig. 1.9 shows that under low load conditions, the SFOC of the
engine will increase (engine efficiency will reduce).
 Although the load on the main engine is primarily dictated by
ship speed, the load on the auxiliary engines depends on the
ship-board electrical loads that are a function of the number of
machines, machinery and equipment being used at each point
in time plus the number of engines used to satisfy the
requirements.
 For the main engines in a direct-drive or gear-drive
configurations (mechanically linked to propeller), there is
not much that can be done as far as load management is
concerned as normally ships have one main engine and
load management normally applies to cases with more than
one engine.
 It is strongly recommended that the main engine load
should be kept at a reasonably steady level under normal
operation by keeping the engine speed (RPM) constant.
Frequent changes to the shaft rpm (engine load) are not
efficient and must be avoided
 Load management for auxiliary engines is an effective way of
reducing the engines’ fuel consumption as well as their
maintenance costs.
 Each ship normally has three or more auxiliary engines; each
connected to one electric generator. The engine and generator as
a combined system are referred to as diesel-generator (DG).
 On-board ships, and often in order to assure against black out, two
DGs are operated for long periods at less than 50% load factor.
 The periods for which these conditions are sustained can include
all discharge periods, standby periods, tank cleaning periods,
movement in restricted waters and ballast exchange periods.
There are two ways of improving engine load factors and
reducing the engine utilization factors:
 Avoid use of multi-engine parallel operation when not
needed.
- by careful planning and implementation of ship-board
activities that require electric power.
- bykeeping number of operating engines to a minimum as
per requirements and avoid deliberate operation of multi
engines when not needed.
 It is important that the demand side is also managed via
better system planning for load reduction. This helps to
provide a better load management on DGs and avoids the
running of two engines at low loads.
* Energy consumption on board can be reduced by
conscious and optimal operation of ship machinery and
systems. These could be achieved more effectively if
planned for each mode of operation. Examples of measures
that can be considered include:
- Avoidance of unnecessary energy use via switching off the
machinery when not needed.
- All non-essential and not-required machinery and
equipment that do not affect the ship and personnel safety
should be stopped whilst in port and at sea.
 Fig.1.10 is a simple gas turbine layout. Filtered air compressed
to about 6bars is drawn into the system and passes through to
the combustion chamber where fuel is introduced and
combustion occurs.
 The hot gas passes through the turbine to the exhaust. In
passing through the turbine it provides motive force for driving
the compressor and external requirements.
 A typical marine gas turbine has thermal efficiency of 38-40%.
The NOx output is about 1/10 that of a marine slow speed diesel
engine.
 The turbine inlet temperature is up to 1200°C and requires
critical blade design and material choice
 The advantages of the gas turbines are;
- its compact size,
- improved performance
- more flexible plant design - controllable pitch propellers
and electrical drives
- low weight and
- reduced maintenance requirements.
• The disadvantages however is its poor fuel consumption.
 Taken in combination with other main engine
improvements the manufacturers claim the UST can
improve performance over conventional steam turbines by
between 22 – 23%.
 Higher turbine efficiency is achieved by application of a
reheat cycle adopting main stream with higher pressure
and temperature.
 In essence, the intermediate pressure turbine is integrated
with the high-pressure turbine for the steam reheat plant,
and the associated higher temperatures (560°C) in the
turbine rotor and single cylindrical turbine casing are
taken care of by using materials already proven in the land-
based use of steam reheat system turbines.
 The UST also brings flexibility of fuel use. It can run entirely
on cargo boil-off LNG, or bunker oil fuel, or any
combination of the two.
 Interestingly, the LNG fuel supply system, is capable of gas-
only use in all conditions of operation, including when the
ship is in harbour
 Steam boilers are vessels in which water is heated to its
boiling point at a pressure higher than the atmospheric.
 The steam system plays a major role in energy efficiency of
certain ship types (such as steam driven LNG ships) and a
medium role in ships such as oil tankers carrying liquid
cargo that require cargo heating or there is a need for
cargo transfer using steam driven pumps but also need to
generate Inert Gas for cargo tank cleaning, purging or tank
top ups.
 The steam generating plant consists of two auxiliary boilers
and one exhaust gas economizer.
 Steam is required at sea for fuel, domestic water and cargo
slop tank heating purposes while in port steam is used
additionally for driving the power turbines of the cargo
pumps and No. 1 water ballast pump.
 The steam demand of the plant in port is served by the
boilers and at sea, it is met by circulating boiler water from
one of the auxiliary boilers through the exhaust gas
economizer and one of the boiler waters circulating pumps.
 The auxiliary boiler acts as a receiver for the steam
generated by the economizer.
 The economizer is arranged in the main engine exhaust
gas uptake to take waste heat from the main engine
exhaust.
 Auxiliary boiler may be required at sea in low temperature
areas, as well as reduced power operation of the main
engine, such as during maneuvering or slow steaming on
passage when there will be insufficient waste heat to
generate the required steam
Basically, there are two major classes of steam boilers:
- The capacity or tank boilers
- Water-tube boilers
 The capacity of the boiler is determined by the amount of
steam (saturated/ superheated or both) produced per unit
time (hourly flow-rate). For small capacity boilers of
capacities to 100kg/h (0.028kg/s). For capacities greater
than 1000kg/h in t/h or kg/s.
- The maximum capacity is the maximum amount of steam
which can be produced without any restrictions of working
pressure and design temperature of superheated steam.
- The rated, economical or normal capacity is the amount of
steam at which the boiler achieves its highest efficiency.
Drated ≈ (0.1 – 0.9) Dmax 2.1
- The minimum capacity the minimum amount of steam
which can be produced without disturbance in water
circulation in the boiler and in combustion processes.
Dmin ≈ (0.1 – 0.2) Dmax 2.2
 The steam produced in boilers can be saturated or
superheated.
 Saturated steam (or wet saturated steam) is used for
heating due to high heat transfer coefficient. Low
superheating of the range 20⁰ - 50℃ prevents heat losses.
 Superheated steam is used as working medium in steam
turbines. The high temperature of steam assures a good
cycle efficiency. In modern steam turbines temperature of
superheated steam reach 500° - 560℃.
 The design pressure is the maximum permissible pressure and it is
not to be less than the highest set pressure at safety value.
 The normal pressure is the pressure at which the boiler operates.
 It is desirable that there should be a margin between the 𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 and
the lowest pressure at which any safety value is set to lift, to prevent
unnecessary lifting of the safety value.
𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ≈ (0.95-0.98) 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 2.3
 The final steam pressure of superheated steam is lower than the
normal pressure. This is due to the pressure drop in the superheated
tubes. The design pressure varies from 4-10 (16) bars for auxiliary
boilers to over 100 bars for main boilers.
For the sake of presenting the energy efficiency case, the ship-
board steam system will be divided into the following parts:
 The auxiliary boilers: This is where the steam is produced using
fuel.
 The exhaust gas economizer: This is where the steam is
produced via waste heat recovery.
 The steam distribution system: This refers to steam piping
system and relevant instruments and devices used for steam
controls.
 Steam end-use: This refers to all the steam consuming systems
such as steam turbines, fresh water generators, steam heaters,
etc.
Boiler associated equipment includes the followings;
- Combustion Control Electronic/Air Operated
- Feed water Regulator Electronic/Air Operated
- Remote Water Level Gauge
- Drum Level Safety System
- Steam Jet Oil Burner
- Water Level Gauge - Reflex Type
- Safety Valve - Full Bore Type
- Chemical Dosing Unit
- FD Fan, F O pump and heaters
 Furnace are closely spaced water wall tubes of 76.2mm
outside diameter, form the membrane walls at the side,
roof, except for burner opening, rear, and front of the
furnace.
 The construction is such as to increase the radiant heat
absorption in the furnace and to make it strong enough to
withstand vibration.
 The furnace is made completely gas-tight by the welded
water wall construction.
 Situated at the top and bottom of the front and rear walls
are water wall headers. Water enters the bottom headers
and rises through the tubes to the top headers due to
natural convection.
 As the water rises, it is heated until its saturation
temperature is reached and it then begins evaporating. This
water- steam mixture is passed to the steam drum via the
top headers.
 Boiler casing is made completely gas-tight by the adoption
of welded membrane water wall construction.
 No casing or refractory is required to contain the
combustion gases.
 Mineral wool insulation is provided on the outer surface of
the furnace water walls and this is covered by corrugated
galvanized sheets to reduced heat transfer.
 The maximum temperature on the casing surface does not
exceed 60°C.
 Steam drum and fitting- The steam and water drums are
fabricated using boiler steel plate of all welded
construction.
 Water droplets rising to the upper part of the steam drum
is prevented by a horizontal perforated baffle plate
covering the entire water surface.
 A steam separator is provided to ensure the elimination of
moisture.
 The feed-water pipe enters the steam drum at the rear of
the boiler and is attached to an internal perforated feed
pipe which extends to the front of the steam drum.
 This ensures that there is complete mixing of incoming
feed with the existing boiler water and an equalizing of
temperature
 In operation, the efficiency tends to be lower than the
above design values.
 There are a number of major areas that need to be
managed in order to keep the auxiliary boiler at its highest
energy efficiency levels as signified
 The main function of a boiler is to generate steam at correct
pressure and temperature and with best energy efficiency.
 Optimal energy efficiency means optimal transfer of fuel
energy to boiling water via various boiler pipes and
heating surfaces.
Aspects that could lead to a reduced rate of this heat transfer
include:
- Fouling of boiler tubes and heat transfer surfaces on the
gas side
- Fouling or scaling of boiler tubes on the water side.
 The above will normally translate into a less heat transfer
from gas and more heat retention by the exhaust gases as
they leave the boiler.
 High boiler outlet exhaust gas temperature could be a
good indication of such fouled conditions and to remedy
the case, maintenance practices should include:
- Boiler’s soot blowing,
- De-scaling, good water,
- Combustion adjustments (to reduce soot formation) etc.
 For this purpose, the heat transfer areas of the boiler must
be monitored.
 The soot blowing of the boiler must be done regularly as
build-up of soot acts like an insulator and reduces the heat
transfer rate. The same goes for the build-up of scale in the
water tubes.
 The stack temperature must be monitored regularly and
any increase in it means that heat recovery is not optimum.
 High increases of exhaust gas temperature beyond those
experienced after the last cleaning would indicate build-up
of fouling and would require another cleaning action.
 Just as any other devices, the boiler energy efficiency is a
function of its load factor. Fig. 2.8 above and Fig. 2.9
below show typical examples of such efficiencies.
 Boiler load management could be considered as one
aspect of energy efficiency
 For this boiler the efficiency is highest at certain point (at
70% load, the efficiency is 80%) and then drop off with
changes in load (at 30% load, the efficiency significantly
dropped to 63%).
 Operating the boiler at low load is thus inefficient.
 Avoiding low load boiler operation will depend on;
- ship type,
 - number of boilers and
- where the steam is used.
 Generally, if there are two auxiliary boilers on a ship, they
must not run in parallel if one can supply the whole steam
demand; unless safety issues dictates the need for such a
parallel operation.
Steam end-use could vary according to ship types. The main
users of steam include:
- Steam-driven cargo pumps in tankers.
- Steam driven ballast pumps
- Cargo heating
- Fuel storage, treatment and condition system
- Fresh water generation especially in cruise ships
- HVAC system in particular in cruise ships
 Effective energy saving techniques should be adopted by
economizing on steam-end use as this would eliminate the
need for extra steam generation.
 There has been increasing energy problems the world over
due to population increase and high living standards.
 This has exposed the energy market to serious pressures
i.e. the past decade witnessed significant increase in
electricity demand as well as a considerable rise of its
consumption, retail prices and fuel costs.
 Some countries suffer from these increasing demands with
constant or even decreasing power supply, which leads to a
progressive growth in the energy shortage gap.
 Challenges on the traditional electricity supply and
delivery, global competition, climate change concerns,
failing grid infrastructure, and security issues also affects
the energy situation thereby release additional
environmental, human health, and financial consequences.
 Thus, energy usage must be optimized through improving
the efficiency of the applied energy systems in addition to
enhancing building designs and appliances, conserving
energy and promoting sustainable or renewable energy
sources.
 Energy efficiency is an important contributor to climate
change mitigation, reducing energy and introducing
technological innovation.
 Installing energy efficient technologies like CCHP and CHP
in vessels and buildings is effective. They are presently the
most appealing and available energy efficient measures.
 Overall energy demand drop, fuel independency,
increased business competitiveness, green house gas
(GHG) emissions cut, and electrical grid improvements are
some of many benefits these technologies offer.
 Cogeneration or combined heat and power production
(CHP) is the simultaneous generation of both electricity
and heat from the same fuel, for useful purposes.
 In this sequential energy production, the requirements for
both heat and power are satisfied from a single source.
 The heat that would have been rejected into the natural
environment through cooling towers, flue gas, or other
means in the power production process is recuperated to
provide process heat requirements, else being delivered
with a separate fuel source, and thus providing significant
fuel savings and pollution reductions.
 Cogeneration thus is a thermodynamically efficient use of
fuel.
 Cogeneration is much more efficient than separate
generation of heat and electricity i.e.:
- > 30% efficiency gain
- Close to 40% in the case of inefficient generation and
transmission infrastructure.
- > 50% fuel savings
 Cogeneration efficiency depends on many factors such as
technology used, fuel type, plants size, heat properties etc.
 CHP reaches an aggregate efficiencies of 80-90%
compared to efficiencies of about 50% for separate
generation
 CHP encompasses a range of technology but will always be
based upon an efficient, integrated system that combines
electricity production and heat recovery system
 Cogeneration also incorporates renewable energy sources.
 Trigeneration or combined cold, heat and power (CCHP) is the
sequential or simultaneous generation of electricity, useful
heating, and cooling from a single fuel source (integrated
system).
 As in CHP, the heat that would have been lost is captured and
used to generate in addition to power and heat, a cold effect.
 waste heat in trigeneration is converted to chilled water either
by absorption or adsorption chiller technology. The cold effect
can be produced either by heat pumps driven thermally or
desiccant systems.
 These systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than
the traditional power plants or cogeneration.
 Trigeneration systems further optimize efficiencies by
making use of the (waste) heat that is produced for the
purpose of heating and/or cooling.
 CCHP increases the flexibility of waste heat utilization as
the process can be adopted to seasonal variations of
heating and cooling energy demands.
 Cogeneration and trigeneration are proven technologies.
 Cogeneration/trigeneration applications are ideally suited
for constant load profile of heating and/or cooling energy
and electricity.
 In the figure above, fuel and excess air are first mixed and
burned in order to drive a prime mover which in turn
drives an electrical generator that produces electricity for
final use.
 The energy of high-temperature exhaust from the prime
mover is mainly recovered using a heat recovery unit.
 Using a convenient heat transfer fluid, recovered heat can
be used in a specific heating processes and/or drive a
cooling unit for cooling processes according to the site
demands.
 Energy of high-temperature prime mover exhaust or low-
temperature exhaust from the heat recovery unit can be
derived again into a secondary prime mover in order to
produce more electricity, where supplementary burning
might be supplied by an auxiliary boiler in cases where
electricity is the predominant load.
 In other particular cases, the primary exhaust might be
recovered directly through the cooling unit.
 Storage tanks are used to store energy since the electrical
and thermal demands are usually not harmonized.
 When one form of energy is produced, the system is a
single generation system and when two forms of energy
are produced, the system becomes a cogeneration system,
and it similarly becomes a trigeneration system when three
forms of energy are simultaneously produced.
 Trigeneration is considered to be the preferred option
especially where constant electrical, heating and cooling
supplies are needed. It is particularly interesting in
countries having large electricity blackout periods.
 Fig. 3.2 compares the separate production of conventional
power, heating, and cooling with that of equivalent CHP or
CCHP system. Under the same load conditions, fuel
consumption is lower and the overall efficiency is greater.
 The main advantage of CHP systems is that they are
suitable where two forms of energy are needed such as
electricity and space heating and CCHP systems are
perfectly suited for systems where three forms of energy
are needed such as electricity, hot water, and space
cooling.
 Cooling equipment, such as absorption chillers, are also
available having low operating and maintenance costs,
noiseless operation, and ecofriendly.
 Increased energy reliability due to ability to run on
multiple fuels and to produce on-site electrical and thermal
energy, providing a backup power with superior quality
wherever grid power is cut.
 New revenue streams by selling excess electricity and
providing saleable steam and heat or other industry-
specific products.
 Easier energy capacity expansion being scalable
according to the facility electrical and thermal needs, and
might be installed faster than extending the required high-
voltage transmission and distribution of national grid.
 Greater flexibility in transmission and distribution
planning.
 Reduced need of investment in infrastructure.
 Its high initial costs
 Current technical advances in the traditional sectors has
reduced the appeal for co/trigeneration.
 Cogeneration and trigeneration have to compete with the
current decrease in fuel and power prices, which extends
the payback period.
 CHP/CCHP systems can be differentiated according to
several factors which are mainly;
- the type of the prime mover installed,
- the sequence of energy used, and
- the size of the plant.
Many principal types or technologies of prime movers (and
thus a CHP/CCHP plant) can be distinguished, these
include:
• Steam turbines
• Gas turbines
• Microturbines
• Combined cycle gas turbines
• Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines
• New emerging technologies:
- Organic Rankine cycle
- Stirling engines
- Fuel cells
 CHP/CCHP systems might be categorized according to the
sequence of energy use and the operating schemes
adopted - as either a topping or a bottoming cycle system.
 The priority in a topping cycle is for power production.
 The supplied fuel is first used to produce power and then
thermal energy (which is the by-product of the cycle being
used to satisfy process heat or other thermal requirements).
 Topping cycle principle is the most widely used method of
multi-generation.
 In a bottoming cycle, the priority is heat production.
 High temperature thermal energy is the primary product of
fuel combustion and the heat rejected from the process is
recovered to generate power.
 Bottoming cycles reject heat at considerably high
temperatures which make them suitable for manufacturing
processes such as cement, steel, ceramic etc. that require
such temperatures in furnaces and kilns.
 Bottoming cycles are much less common in use than
topping cycles.
 CHP/CCHP systems are of different sizes depending on the
power needed and application. Thus, there is the large-
scale and small-scale, as well as micro-CHP/CCHP
systems:
 A custom-built CHP/CCHP plant can range from 1 MWe up
to hundreds of MWe.
 The plant generally consists of large and complex systems
installed on-site.
 The prime mover for units up to about 40 MWe is most
commonly a simple cycle gas turbine, or a steam turbine if
solid fuel and oils are used. For units larger than 50 MWe, a
CCGT is often used where steam is generated from the
turbine exhaust.
 A trade-off between heat and power can be done
depending on the size of the prime mover or the pressure
of the extracted steam.
 Small CHP/CCHP systems typically range from 60 kWe to
1.5 MWe.
 They are often designed as packages and supplied as
complete units, to meet the requirements and demands of
the site.
 The package contains the prime mover, generator and heat
recovery equipment, together with all the associated
pipework, valves and controls.
 Most commonly, the prime mover of such units is an ICE.
Heat is then recovered from the engine exhaust system and
water jacket via suitable heat exchangers.
 Small-scale gas turbines (mini-turbines) are now available
with lower maintenance costs, but also lower electrical
efficiencies.
 Micro-CHP/CCHP is a system with less than 50 kWe size
range.
 Systems with slightly greater power are often referred to as
mini-CHP/ CCHP. Like small-scaled CHP/CCHP, micro-
CHP/CCHP systems are designed and supplied as
complete units.
 They could be implemented with internal combustion
engines, micro-turbines, Stirling engines, or fuel cells.
 Typical applications are in the buildings sector; i.e.
residential, public, or small commercial sites.
 Industrial cogeneration (large-scale cogeneration >12
MWe and medium-scale cogeneration 1-12 Mwe)
 Commercial, residential and institutional cogeneration
(small-scale cogeneration 2,151 kWe and medium-scale
cogeneration
 Micro-cogeneration (< 36 kWe) and mini-cogeneration (36-
215 kWe)
 Trigeneration is useful when a cooling need is added to the
power and heat demand.
 Trigeneration like cogeneration, can be applied for various
sectors such as Industrial, commercial and Micro (domestic
usage) applications.
- It increases the energy efficiency of industries using
refrigeration systems like food industries, especially for the
food and drinks storage. In these industrial processes, the
cooling demand is often more constant than the heat
demands
 - It has benefits for every building using air conditioning,
which may consume a lot of energy during summer.
Therefore, such an installation can be cost-effective for all
sizes of buildings.
- Several independent studies highlight the trigeneration
preference for data centers and for applications such as
airports, hospitals, supermarkets, and even domestic usage.
Determining whether a CHP/CCHP project is viable involves
consideration of complex and interrelated issues and key
factors, which include:
• Initial investment and capital cost.
• Operating and maintenance costs.
• Purchase price of fuel and electricity.
• Sale price of electricity and heat sold off site, if
applicable.
• Maximizing the use of electricity generated on site.
• Assuring continuous operation of the processes
at normal conditions.
• Avoiding the generation of excess lost thermal energy.
• Considering the thermal storage option.
• Focusing on:
1. Identification of energy-saving opportunities
2. Health, safety, and emissions control
3. Noise and vibration
4. Electrical hazards
5. Engineering barriers
6. Administrative controls
7. Construction and operating permits
 Power which usually means electric energy and
conventionally used for driving electric motors are in the
case of ships used for propulsion while thermal energy are
used for air and water heating, steam production and other
heating processes.
 Thermal-electric plant’s efficiency coefficient ranges
between 35 – 40%, showing more than half of introduced
energy is lost – the reason for the cogeneration plants
implementation.
 Marine propulsion plant is the energy plant used to convert
the thermal energy into mechanical work, most of which is
used for the propulsion of ship and other auxiliary electric
prime movers, while the heat is used for the engine room,
superstructure, and in some cases for liquid cargo.
 Marine plant is an industrial one, only cogeneration with
diesel engines, steam and gas turbines as prime energy
transformation units are applicable. Some combinations
could also be found.
 The possibility of application of any other type of prime
mover depends on the power and heat demand ratio, which
changes constantly during ship’s operation.
 Efficiency of the cogeneration drops with increase in the
distance between place of production and the place of
consumption of energy. The price is also increased, not
only because of the production material, but because of
thermal insulation material.
 Many of the heat consumers are placed in the engine room.
 Power plants can easily be compared through thermal
efficiency coefficient.
 Since, marine plants produce both power and heat, more
criteria shall be considered and Prelec in their submissions
suggests the following:
1) energy efficiency,
2) used energy value factor,
3) equivalent thermal efficiency,
4) transformation energy equivalent factor,
5) fuel saving factor,
 The energy efficiency is defined as;
1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑚 + 𝐸𝑇 𝐸𝑚 (1+ ψ )
η𝐸 = = = 3.1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐

Where:
η𝐸 = Energy efficiency; 𝐸𝑚 = Produce power; 𝐸𝑇 = Produced
thermal energy; 𝐸𝑐 = Consumed energy in the process (by
fuel
𝐸𝑚
combustion); ψ = Power and thermal energy ratio, i.e. ψ =
.
𝐸𝑇
 The power and heat ratio do not change much when
stationary plants are considered because it’s defined by the
structure of the process and its demands, but changes a lot
when ship’s plant is considered.
 Transformation energy equivalent factor 𝐹𝐾,𝐸 in a
cogeneration process is determined by expression:
𝐸
𝐸𝑐 − η 𝑇 1 1 1
𝐹𝐾.𝐸 = 𝐺𝑇
= − = 3.2
𝐸𝑚 η𝑡,𝑘 ψη𝐺𝑃 η𝑡,ε𝑘𝑣
 The fuel consumption reduction in a combined system
when compared with the process of separate production is
given with expression:
∆𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐶(𝑠𝑒𝑝) − 𝐸𝐶(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏) 3.3
Considering the thermal efficiency of the electricity
production and the steam generator’s efficiency, using the
expressions for the factor 𝐹𝐾,𝐸 expression (3.3) becomes:
1
∆𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐾,𝐸 3.4
η𝑡
 Almost every field of industry, marine industry included,
has the need for different ‘shapes’ of energy and, when fuel
cost increase is considered, the constant need for process
improvement is understandable.
 Cogeneration is well developed approach to increase the
efficiency of fuel chemical energy transformation. Although
the electric energy production coefficient is reduced, the
total energy transformation coefficient is increased.
 A trigeneration plants could give further efficiency
increase, resulting in total efficiency of up to 75%. An
implementation of such equipment on board ship should
be a matter of additional research.
 An on-board plant is specific when control mechanisms of
ship building are in question. Namely, ships are built
according to the classification societies’ regulation. Its role
is to accept the tendencies in the energy transformation
processes.
 Nevertheless, for most ships and most ship owners, diesel
engine still remain the best solution, both in respect to
reliability and in fuel consumption and cost saving. Yet, for
some types of ships systems combining steam and gas
turbines could hold their place in the market.
 The basic design considerations and requirements for
HVAC systems designs for marine applications are similar
to those for shore-based installations, except that marine
installations must cope with more demanding criteria and
parameters, some of which are:
- Space available is less for HVAC systems equipment,
ducting and components.
- Ships are mobile thus solar loads can affect compartments
with weather boundary above the waterline.
- In less than a day, a ship can undergo extreme weather
conditions variations.
- HVAC systems installation must be resistant to the
corrosive effects of seawater and salty air.
- An HVAC system must be capable of adequately and
efficiently operating under rough weather conditions of ship
movement
- Design of a marine HVAC system must be capable of
continuous operation with a high degree of reliability
(ships while at sea has little or no availability to supply of
spare parts and thus must carry its own spare parts and
tools).
- A marine HVAC system design and installation concept
must be such as to minimize structure borne and airborne
noise generated by the HVAC system components since the
enclosed area in a ship are generally small and also the
structure of ships offers very little sound dampening.
- The design of marine HVAC system must be watertight as
to prevent water access into the ship during rough weather
conditions.
- Smoke control and fire safety of shipboard systems are
critical due to limited firefighting and egress capabilities.
- In addition to performing its design functions, ships must
also have its own accommodations, storage areas,
generating and propulsion equipment, laundry areas, fuel
supply etc.
Thus the ship HVAC system must be capable of satisfactory
performance under these multitude of internal
compartments conditions, load variations, and functional
requirements.
In addition to the above listed criteria, HVAC systems
designed for special ships such as naval ships must also be
capable of meeting the underlisted requirements:
- They must be designed to withstand shock and vibration
requirements that are based on battle conditions and ship
movement considerations.
- The available space for HVAC systems are even less for a
naval ship because of the complexity of the systems on the
naval ship, and the numerous compartment functions.
- HVAC systems on naval ship must be designed and arranged to
minimize weight as weight is normally very crucial on a naval
ship design.
- The performance and reliability of naval HVAC systems are
critical since these systems serve functions vital to the ship’s
intended purpose and mission (in war time, a naval ship can be
at sea for a long period of time).
- The HVAC design must be capable of coping with the large heat
loads and the variations in heat loads from the various
compartments that large amount of equipment which produces
these high heat load.
- AnHVAC system must be designed to use standardized
equipment and components and as much as practicable,
standardized construction details and methods, to allow for
the expeditious replacement of parts in an emergency or
wartime situation.
- Etc.
 Heating is the process of raising the ambient temperature
by adding heat to the air, to achieve higher air temperature.
 Heating is achieved by various means on board ships:
- reheaters are used in a central station air-conditioning
system with the cooling functions turned off;
- preheaters and reheaters are used in supply air ventilation
systems; and
- convection or radiant heating is used in spaces not
equipped with either an air-conditioning or supply air
ventilation system.
 The air for ventilation and air conditioning plants are
required to provide an acceptable climate for the crew to
live and work, sufficient air for machinery use and to
maintain temperature and humidity at acceptable levels for
the cargo.
 All these must be achieved regardless of the conditions
prevailing external to the ship.
 Ventilation is the movement of air from the outside or
weather into the ship, or from inside the ship to outside.
 This is generally achieved by a combination of supply fans,
exhaust fans, and ductwork.
 The type of ventilation system adopted in any given system
varies according to the nature of the space and its
ventilation.
 Special requirements exist for auxiliary machinery spaces
where mechanical supply ventilation is provided at a
specified rate of change depending on the size and
specific function of the space.
 Inadequate or poor-quality air supplies can seriously
damage most cargos. Fairly simple systems of cargo
ventilation can prevent such damage.
 Certain cargos are carried in non-insulated holds as a
result, they are exposed to all climatic changes which may
cause condensation on the hull or cargo. Ventilation of the
hold is therefore necessary.
 Refrigerated and frozen cargos are carried in insulated
holds but because of the living, gas producing nature of the
cargo, they also require ventilation.
 The purpose of ventilation in non-insulated holds is to
remove excess heat and humidity and to remove gases
produced in the ripening of some fruits and vegetable
cargos.
 Natural and mechanical ventilation are used for this
purpose.
 Natural ventilation is accompanied by inlet and outlet pipes
and trunking to each cargo space.
 Most modern ships use mechanical ventilation. Mechanical
ventilation operates in two distinct systems – the opened
and closed.
 The opened system uses axial flow fans fitted in the inlet
and outlet trunks. The closed system recirculates air and a
controlled amount of fresh air can be admitted.
 Tanker pump room requires ventilation to carry away
poisonous cargo fumes resulting from leaking glands or
pipe joints.
 Mechanical exhaustion of air is achieved by the use of axial
flow fans and trunking.
 The trunking draws air from the pump room flow and
emergency intakes at a height of 2.15m from the working
platform. These emergency intakes must be fitted with
dampers which can be opened or closed from the weather
deck or the working platform.
 Ventilation of cargo tanks prevents over pressure or partial
pressure conditions which could occur during loading and
unloading of cargo. Temperature fluctuation during a
voyage could have a similar effect.
 Vapor pipelines from the cargo hatch are led to
pressure/vacuum relief valves which are usually mounted
on a stand pipe some height above the deck.
 Individual vent lines are fitted for each tank, for large
tankers a common venting line is led up a mast or Sampson
post on smaller vessel.
 Air conditioning is the process of treating air to
simultaneously control its temperature, humidity, motion
and purity of the atmosphere of a given space or group of
spaces (zone).
 Thus, the important factors that are involved in a complete
air conditioning installation are;
i. Temperature control
ii. Humidity control
iii. Air movement and circulation and
iv. Air filtering, cleaning and purification.
 Complete air conditioning provides simultaneous control of
these factors for both summer and winter.
 Winter conditioning relates to increasing temperature and
humidity whilst summer conditioning relates to decreasing
temperature and increasing humidity.
 Air conditioning systems are intended to provide a
controlled environment that is satisfactory for personnel,
equipment, processes etc.
 In both naval and commercial ships there are compelling
reasons for the requirement for cooling interior shipboard
spaces by air conditioning.
 Some of the reasons common to both naval and
commercial ships are comfort and health.
 The basic elements of air conditioning systems (of
whatever form) are;
- Fans for moving air.
- Filters for cleaning air, either fresh, recirculated or both.
- Refrigerating plant connected to heat exchange surface,
such as finned coils or chilled water spray.
- Means for warming the air, such as hot water or steam
heated coils or electrical elements.
- Means for humidification; and or dehumidification.
- Control system to regulate automatically the amount of
cooling or warming.
 The air conditioning systems may be divided into two main
classes;
a. The central unit type in which the air is distributed to a
group of spaces through ducting.
- It has the advantage of saving space, economy in pipework
and minimal possibility of refrigerant leaking since the
circuit is sealed in the factory.
b. The self-contained unit types installed in the space it is to
serve.
- The central unit is the most widely applied in one or other
of alternative systems characterized by the means
provided to meet the varying requirements of each of the
spaces being conditioned.
 The systems in general use are as follows;
i. Zone control system.
ii. Double duct systems.
iii. Reheat system.
 Psychometry is the science that deals with air and water-
vapor mixture.
 Psychometric data may be presented in both chart and
tabular form.
 The psychometric chart shown below is used in designing
air-conditioning systems because it is easier to use than
tables.
 The properties shown on the psychometric chart are
defined as follows;
 This chart is used for finding the relative humidity of air
which has been measured using a 'wet and dry bulb'
thermometer.
 This is a pair of thermometers, one of which has its bulb
wrapped in a damp cloth.
 The drier the air, the greater the evaporation of water off
the cloth and therefore the lower the reading on the 'wet
bulb' thermometer
 Dry-bulb temperature – the temperature recorded by a
common thermometer, measured in °C. On the chart, these
are vertical lines from the scale at the bottom.
 Wet-bulb temperature – the temperature recorded by a
common thermometer with a moistened wick placed
around the bulb and a stream of air passed over the wick,
measured in °C. On the psychometric chart, these are
sloping lines starting at the saturation line on the left of the
chart and running obliquely down to the right.
 Dew-point temperature – the temperature at which
condensation of moisture begins when the air is cooled. It is the
saturation temperature corresponding to the vapor pressure
and relative humidity and is expressed in °C. On the chart, this
temperature is read on the saturation curve on the left side of
the chart. At saturation, the dew-point temperature, dry-bulb
temperature and wet-bulb temperature are the same.
 Relative humidity – the ratio of the actual water-vapor
pressure of the air to the saturated water-vapor pressure of the
air at the same temperature, expressed as a percent. On the
psychometric chart these are curved lines from the top right to
the bottom left of the chart.
 Specific humidity – on the chart the specific humidity is
indicated on horizontal lines with the scale on the right side
of the chart.
 Enthalpy – a thermal property that indicates the quantity of
heat in the air above an arbitrary datum expressed in KJ/Kg
of dry air. The enthalpy values given on the psychometric
chart are for saturated air and are sufficiently accurate for
most air-conditioning calculations. In the psychometric
chart, the enthalpy values are on the left side on a scale
corresponding to the wet-bulb temperature.
 Enthalpy deviation – this is caused by the air not being in
the saturated state. An enthalpy correction is applied where
extreme accuracy is required, however, it is neglected for
most air-conditioning estimates.
 Specific volume – on the psychometric chart it is shown on
the slopping lines from upper left to lower right.
 Sensible-heat factor – the ratio of sensible heat to total
heat. On the chart the scale is on the right-hand side.
 All units are expressed in terms of “per kg of dry air”
because the various properties of the moist air changes
during an air-conditioning cycle, and only the weight of dry
air remains constant.
 It can be seen that cooling a superheated vapor at constant
pressure will bring it to the saturated vapor line, or Dew
point.
 It can also be seen that cooling at constant temperature
raises the partial pressure until the dew point is reached.
 Therefore, from the equation below for determining the
relative humidity,
%RH = m/mg x 100 = p/pg x 100
= Pdew/pg point x 100 4.1
Where: g = saturation condition
This means dry air contains the maximum moisture content
(% R.H.) at the saturation conditions.
 Refrigeration is a process of cooling by the transfer of heat
from the item or space being refrigerated to a colder
medium, the refrigerant.
 Heat is a form of energy and is indestructible so if heat is
removed from a space or substance to cool it to a
temperature below that of its surroundings, the heat
removed must be discarded to some substance at a higher
temperature where it is of no consequence.
 This is achieved by using a mechanical refrigeration
process in which a refrigerant is used to alternately absorb
heat from the space or object to be cooled and reject the
 Refrigeration thus depends on thermodynamics, heat
transfer and fluid flow for its practical achievement.
 On naval ships, refrigeration is installed primarily for the
preservation of food required for the crew.
 In commercial ships however, the applications are vaster
and ranges from preserving food for humans to extending
the useful life of perishables such as fresh fruits,
vegetables, flowers, meats, confectionery, chemicals,
 The withdrawal of heat to achieve the desired degree of
refrigeration requires the use of any one of several
refrigerating processes.
 Each of these depends upon the use of a substance called
the refrigerant, which can readily be converted from a
liquid into a vapor (evaporation), and also from a vapor into
a liquid (condensation), within a reasonable narrow range
of pressures.
 Both refrigeration and air conditioning are measured in
tons of refrigeration.
 A ton of refrigeration is the cooling effect of one ton of ice
at 0°C that melts in 24hrs – the rating of the refrigeration
machine.
 The two major refrigeration systems in commercial use are
the absorption system and the vapor compression system.
 Most marine refrigerating plants are of the vapor
compression type.
Vapor compression system
- The basic principles of the vapor compression system are
as follows:
1. A fluid requires and absorbs large quantities of heat when
it changes state from a liquid to a vapor.
2. The temperature at which a fluid evaporates or condenses
depends on the pressure existing at the interface between
the vapor and the liquid. The pressure-temperature
relationship of commonly used refrigerants is shown in the
table below
3. A vapor or gas can be liquified by compression and
cooling by a process known as liquification. The property
which makes the vapor compression system an economic
proposition is that any vapor or gas can be liquified and
recycled by suitably compressing it to a sufficiently high
pressure and then cooling it. If this were not the case, no
refrigerant other than air or water could be used
economically, and neither air nor water is ideal.
 The vapor compression cycle takes place in a closed
system and are completed in one cycle comprising a
compressor,
- a condenser,
- a liquid receiver,
- an evaporator, and
- a flow control or expansion valve , interconnected by
discharge, liquid and suction lines.
 The flow diagram is shown in Fig. 4.8
 The vapor at low temperature and pressure (state 2) enters
the compressor where it is compressed isentropically and
subsequently, its temperature and pressure increase
considerably (state 3)
 This vapor after leaving the compressor enters the
condenser where it is condensed into high pressure liquid
(state 4) and is collected in a receiver tank.
 From receiver tank, it passes through the expansion valve
where it is throttled down to a lower pressure and has a
lower temperature (state 1)
 After finding its way through the expansion valve, it finally
passes on to evaporator where it extracts heat from the
surroundings or circulating fluid being refrigerated and
vaporizes to low pressure vapor (state 2).
 The cycle described above and shown in Fig. 4.8, can more
easily be depicted on a pressure-enthalpy (P-H) or Molier
diagram as shown in Fig. 4.9 below.
 The Carnot cycle is a theoretical model that is useful for
understanding of a refrigeration cycle.
 In some applications the Carnot refrigeration cycle is
known as the reverse Carnot cycle
 The reversed Carnot cycle with vapor as refrigerant can be
used as practical cycle with minor modifications.
 The isothermal processes of heat rejection and absorption
accompany condensation and evaporation are nearly
perfect processes and easily achieved in practice
 The isentropic compression and expansion processes
however have certain limitations which are:
- a. Dry versus wet compression because wet compression
may damage the compressor since liquid cannot be
compressed easily.
- B. Throttling versus isentropic expansion, because the
expansion required a turbine and the work of the turbine is
so small therefore throttling is preferable.
- In plants with large amount of refrigeration charge
(refrigerant) a reservoir is installed in the liquid line. A
drier is also installed in the liquid line in Freon system.
 The representation of the saturation vapor
compression refrigeration cycle on the P‐H and T‐S
diagram are as follow:
 Line A to B represents the change from high to low
pressure, or expansion process (from 11.92 bar to 1.32
bar).
 Line B to 𝐵1 represents the amount of liquid flashed off in
the expansion valve cooling the remaining liquid.
 Line B to C represents the evaporation process at constant
saturation temperature and pressure in the evaporator (-
35°C and 1.32 bar). At point C the refrigerant is a dry
saturated vapor.
 Line C to 𝐶 1 represents the superheat absorbed by the dry
saturated vapor (from -35°C to -25°C).
 Line 𝐶 1 to D represents the compression process.
 Line D to E represents the superheat given up by the vapor
in the condenser (from 90°C to 30°C). at point E the
refrigerant is a dry saturated vapor.
 Line E to F represents the condensation process at constant
saturation temperature and pressure (30°C and 11.92 bar).
At point F the refrigerant is a saturated liquid.
 Line F to A represents the sub cooling of the condensed
liquid (from 30°C to 20°C).
 Refrigerating effect is the amount of heat absorbed by each
unit of refrigerant as it flows through the evaporator and is
equal to the difference between the enthalpy of the vapor
leaving the evaporator and the enthalpy of the liquid at the
flow control.
 Thus, for the system shown in Fig. 4.9, refrigerating effect
is;
𝑞𝐸 = (ℎ𝐶 1 - ℎ𝐴 ) KJ/Kg 4.1
= 398.3 – 230.3 KJ/Kg = 168.3 KJ/Kg
 The rate at which the system will absorb heat from the
refrigerated space or substance is known as the refrigerating
capacity, and is expressed as;
Refrigerating capacity, 𝑄𝐸 = m x 𝑞𝐸 KJ/s 4.3
Where: m = mass flow of refrigerant through the evaporator
(Kg/s)
 For the system shown in Fig. 4.9 to achieve a specified
refrigerating capacity, the required mass flow rate is;
𝑄𝐸 𝐾𝐽/𝑠 150
m= = = 0.94Kg/s 4.4
𝑞𝐸 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔 160
 The compressor capacity is its ability to remove the vapor
from the evaporator at the same rate at which it is formed.
 If the capacity is too small the excess vapor will accumulate
in the evaporator, causing the pressure and saturation
temperature to rise. Consequently, if too large, it will
remove the vapor from the evaporator too rapidly, causing
the pressure and saturation temperature to fall.
 To maintain a specified operating condition, a compressor
must have a swept volume equal to the volume of the vapor
formed in the evaporator per unit time (𝑚3 /ℎ).
V = m x v 𝑚3 /h 4.5

Where: v = specific volume of the vapor at the compressor

suction inlet, 𝑚3 /𝐾𝑔.

 For the system shown in Fig. 4.9, v = 0.18𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 (at -25°C
and 1.32 bar)
i.e. V = 0.94 x 0.18 x 3600 = 609 𝑚3 /h
 The energy input from the compressor motor to raise the
pressure of the vapor to the required condensing
temperature is known as the heat of compression, and is
equal to the difference between the enthalpy of the vapor
at the compressor outlet and inlet.
 Thus, for the system shown in Fig. 4.9, heat of compression
is;
𝑊𝐶 = ℎ𝐷 − ℎ𝐶 1 = 470 – 398.3 KJ/Kg = 71.7 KJ/Kg 4.6
 The rate of heat transfer from the refrigerant in the
condenser to the cooling medium is known as the
condenser duty, and is expressed as;
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝑞𝐶 KJ/s KW 4.7
Where: 𝑞𝐶 , the total heat of rejection, is equal to the
refrigerating effect plus the heat of compression. Thus, for
the system shown in Fig. 4.9,
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑚 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑊𝐶 KW 4.8
= 0.94(470 – 230.3) = 225.3KW
 The ratio of refrigerating effect (heat absorbed by the
refrigerant while passing through the evaporator) to the
heat of compression (the work input required to compress
the refrigerant in the compressor) is known as the
coefficient of performance (C.O.P.)
𝑅𝑛 ℎ𝐶1 −ℎ𝐴
 C.O.P = = 4.9
𝑊𝐶 ℎ 𝐷 − ℎ 𝐶1
168.0
= = 2.34
71.7
The thermodynamic processes are as follows:
1 ‐ 2: Isentropic compression 𝑆1 = 𝑆2
2 ‐ 3: De super heating and condensation at P=constant
3‐4: Throttling (h=constant)
4 ‐ 1: Evaporation at P =constant
Further calculations:
Q condenser (𝑄𝑐 ) = m (ℎ2 – ℎ3 ) 4.10
Q evaporator (𝑄𝑒 ) = m (ℎ1 – ℎ4 ) 4.11
W compressor 𝑊𝑐 = m (ℎ2 – ℎ1 ) 4.12
ℎ4 = ℎ3 Throttling processes
 The mass flow rate m (kg/s) can be calculated as:
m =Refrigeration capacity (kW) / Refrigeration effect
(kJ/kg)
𝑄𝑒
= 4.13
ℎ1 − ℎ 4
The coefficient of performance is obtained as
𝑄𝑒
C.O.P. = 4.14
𝑊
ℎ1 − ℎ 4
= 4.15
ℎ1 − ℎ 2
Piston displacement of the compressor can be given by:
Vp = π (D2 /4) L N / 60
𝑚𝑉
= 4.16
η𝑣
Where: ηv is the volumetric efficiency
v is the specific volume at point 1 (m3 /kg)
L and D is the stroke and diameter of the piston
N is the revolution per minute rpm
 The values of enthalpies can be obtained either
from Charts or tables.
If tables are used then: ℎ1 = ℎ𝑔
 the evaporator temperature (the low temperature)
ℎ3 = ℎ𝑓 at the condenser temperature (the high temperature)
ℎ4 = ℎ3 : Throttling process
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑔 at condenser temperature + cp (T2 – T condenser)
𝑇2 can be found from:
𝑆1 = 𝑆2 = 𝑆𝑔 at condenser temperature + 𝐶𝑝 Ln (𝑇2 / T
condenser)
Example 1
Consider a refrigerator which operates on the ideal
refrigeration cycle. The evaporator temperature is -20°C and
the condenser temperature is 40°C. the refrigerant is R-134a
and its flow rate in the cycle is 0.2Kg/s. Calculate the
following;
Compressor work rate (W)
Condenser heat rate (𝑄𝑛 )
Evaporator heat rate (𝑄𝐿 )
COP and
COP based on the Carnot cycle
Solution:
Based on the input data given above, we take the thermodynamic
data in terms of enthalpy, pressure and temperature from the
thermodynamic tables of R-134a and list them in the following
table, along with the cycle T-S diagram
For the compressor work;
W = 𝑚(ℎ
ሶ 2 − ℎ1 ) = 0.2(431.24 – 386.08) = 9.0KW
Condenser heat rate;
ሶ 2 − ℎ3 ) = 0.2(431.24 – 256.54) = 34.9KW
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑚(ℎ
Evaporator heat rate (e.g. refrigeration load)
ሶ 1 − ℎ4 ) = 0.2(386.08 – 256.54) = 25.9KW
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚(ℎ
𝑄𝐿 25.9
COP = = =2.87
𝑊 9.0
The COP based on the Carnot cycle;
𝑇𝐿 (273.15 −20) 253.15
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = = =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 40+273.15 −(273.15−20) 313.15 −253.15
= 4.22
 As seen from the calculation, the COP from energy balance
equations is 32% less than the COP calculated based on the
Carnot cycle which is theoretically the maximum COP that can
be reached.
 At present some effort has been devoted to the utilization of
the vast waste energy from diesel engines used onboard
ships for refrigeration.
 There are several types of refrigeration technology being
used for marine application including
- compression refrigeration,
- sorption and
- injection refrigeration systems.
 Both absorption and adsorption refrigeration systems are
sorption refrigeration technologies
 Compression and injection refrigeration need extra
energy to drive the compressor and injectors which lead to
increase in fuel consumption of ships.
 A sorption refrigeration system is driven by thermal energy
and needs little electricity and can utilize the waste heat of
the engine and improve the energy conservation efficiency
thus, fuel can be saved considerably.
 The absorption refrigeration system comprises of
condenser, expansion valve, evaporator, absorber, pump
and generator.
1. Condenser: Just as in the condenser of the vapor
compression cycle, the refrigerant enters the condenser at
high pressure and temperature and gets condensed. The
condenser is of water-cooled type.
2. Expansion valve or restriction: When the refrigerant
passes through the expansion valve, its pressure and
temperature reduce suddenly. The refrigerant (ammonia in
this case) then enters the evaporator.
3. Evaporator: The refrigerant at very low pressure and
temperature enters the evaporator and produces the cooling
effect. In the vapor absorption cycle, this refrigerant flows to the
absorber that acts as the suction part of the refrigeration cycle.
4. Absorber: The absorber is a sort of vessel that consists of the
weak solution of the refrigerant (ammonia) and absorbent
(water). When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber,
it is absorbed by the absorbent due to which the pressure inside
the absorber reduces further leading to more flow of the
refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber. At high
temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by
external coolant to increase its ammonia absorption capacity.
 The refrigerant leaving the evaporator enter the absorber,
where it is absorbed by the absorbent. Pump helps the
strong solution of refrigerant-absorber enter the generator.
The refrigerant then enters the condenser while the
remaining weak solution enters back to the absorber and
the cycle is repeated.
 When the refrigerant entering the absorber is absorbed by
the absorbent its volume decreases, thus the compression
of the refrigerant occurs. The absorber thus acts as the
suction part of the compressor. The heat of absorption is
also released in the absorber, which is removed by
external coolant.
5. Pump: When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant
strong solution of refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-water) is
formed. This solution is pumped by the pump at high
pressure to the generator. Thus, pump increases the
pressure of the solution to about 10bar.
6. Generator: The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the
generator is heated by external heat source (steam from
exhaust system, jacket water, turbocharger cooling system
or any other suitable source) which increases the
temperature of the solution. The refrigerant in the solution
gets vaporized and leaves the solution at high pressure. The
high pressure and high temperature refrigerant then enter
the condenser, where it is cooled by the coolant, and it then
enters the expansion valve and then finally into the
evaporator where it produces the cooling effect.
 This refrigerant is then again absorbed by the weak
solution in the absorber.
 The pressure of the refrigerant is increased in the
generator; hence it is considered to be equivalent to the
compression part of the compressor.
 The most commonly used refrigerant-absorbent pairs in
commercial systems are:
1. Water-Lithium Bromide (H2O-LiBr) system for above 0o C
applications such as air conditioning. Here water is the
refrigerant and lithium bromide are the absorbent.
2. Ammonia-Water (NH3-H2O) system for refrigeration
applications with ammonia as refrigerant and water as
absorbent.
Efforts are being made to develop other refrigerant-
absorbent systems using both natural and synthetic
refrigerants to overcome some of the limitations of (H2O-
LiBr) and (N𝐻3 -𝐻2 O) systems.
 The cycle uses water as the refrigerant and a solution of
lithium bromide in water is used as the absorbent.
 In the absorber, the lithium bromide absorbs the water
refrigerant, creating a solution of water and lithium
bromide. This solution is pumped by the pump to the
generator where it is heated.
 The water refrigerant gets vaporized and moves to the
condenser where it is cooled while the lithium bromide
flows back to the absorber where it further absorbs water
coming from the evaporator.
 This refrigeration system using water-lithium bromide are
extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems.
 Since water is used as refrigerant, using these systems it is
not possible to provide refrigeration at sub-zero
temperatures. Hence it is used only in applications
requiring refrigeration at temperatures above 0°𝐶.
 Analysis of this system is easy as the vapor generated in
the generator is almost pure refrigerant (water), unlike
ammonia-water system where both ammonia and water
vapor are generated in the generator.
1. Lithiumbromide has great affinity for water vapor,
however, when the water-lithium bromide solution is formed,
they are not completely soluble with each other under all
the operating conditions of the absorption refrigeration
system. Because of this, the designer must take care that
such conditions would not be created where crystallization
and precipitation of the lithium bromide would occur.
2. The water used as the refrigerant in the absorption
refrigeration system means the operating pressures in the
condenser and the evaporator must be very low. Even the
difference of pressure between the condenser and the
evaporator must be very low. This can be achieved even
without installing the expansion valve in the system, since
the drop in pressure occurs due to friction in the
refrigeration piping and in the spray nozzles.
3. Thecapacity of any absorption refrigeration system
depends on the ability of the absorbent to absorb the
refrigerant, which in turn depends on the concentration of
the absorbent. To increase the capacity of the system, the
concentration of the absorbent should be increased, which
would enable absorption of more refrigerant. Some of the
most common methods used to change the concentration of
the absorbent are: controlling the flow of the steam or hot
water to the generator, controlling the flow of water used for
condensing in the condenser, and re-concentrating the
absorbent leaving the generator and entering the absorber.
 There are no moving parts except for the two small
centrifugal pumps.
 Step less capacity control down to 0% capacity which is not
possible with reciprocating machines and centrifugal
 No feon used
 No recharging cost of refrigerant
 Low working pressure
 Low COP.
 High heat rejection factor, thus requires higher cooling
tower and pump capacities.
 Corrosive nature of lithium bromide corrodes the heat
exchanger.
 The process of a continuously operating absorption system
is characterized by the points 1 to 6.
- Point 1 to 3: The strong solution leaves the generator and
enters the absorber via the heat exchanger. The position of
point 3 is determined by the evaporator pressure (or the
evaporation temperature TE)
- Point 3 to 4: The solution absorbs the water vapor corning
from the evaporator. The absorber temperature TA defines
point 4 and gives the concentration of the weak solution, 𝑋𝑤𝑠 .
- Point 4 to 6: The weak solution is transported from the
absorber to the generator via the heat exchanger. The
location of point 6 depends on the given temperature TG
and thus on the condenser pressure
- Point 6 to 1: Boiling of the solution in the generator. The
generator temperature TG defines point 1 and determines
the concentration of the strong solution, 𝑋𝑠𝑠 .
- Point 6 to 8: Water vapor goes from generator to condenser
and is condensed.
- Point 8 to 9: Water liquid flows from condenser to
evaporator
- Point 9 to 4: Evaporation and absorption of water vapor by
the solution
 Referring to figure 4.14, two mass flow balances over the
generator give the following equations.
 Total mass flow balance:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠𝑠 + 𝑀𝑤 4.17
LiBr balance;
𝑀𝑤𝑠 𝑋𝑤𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝑠𝑠 4.18
Where: 𝑀𝑠𝑠 , 𝑀𝑤𝑠 and 𝑀𝑤 are the mass flow of the strong
solution, weak solution, and water refrigerant,𝑋𝑠𝑠 and 𝑋𝑤𝑠 ,
are the concentrations of LiBr in the strong and weak
solutions.
 The concentration is defined as the ratio of the mass
fraction of LiBr in a solution to the total mass of LiBr and
water contained in the solution are expressed as:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑖𝐵𝑟
X= 4.19
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑖𝐵𝑟+𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
 But;
𝑀𝑤𝑠 𝑋𝑠𝑠
= 4.20
𝑀𝑤 𝑋𝑠𝑠 − 𝑋𝑤𝑠
𝑀𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝑤𝑠
and = 4.21
𝑀𝑤 𝑋𝑠𝑠 − 𝑋𝑤𝑠
 Using the notation of figure 4.14, the steady state flow
energy equation will be applied to each component
assuming equilibrium states and uniform temperature
1. Generator: The rate of heat transfer to the solution is;
𝑄𝐺ሶ = 𝑀7 ℎ7 + 𝑀1 ℎ1 - 𝑀6 ℎ6 4.22
But
𝑀1 = 𝑀2 = 𝑀3 = 𝑀𝑠𝑠
𝑀4 = 𝑀5 = 𝑀6 = 𝑀𝑤𝑠
𝑀7 = 𝑀8 = 𝑀9 = 𝑀10 = 𝑀𝑤
Or
𝑄𝐺ሶ = 𝑀𝑤 ℎ7 + 𝑀𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 - 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ℎ6 4.23
Where:
ℎ1 = enthalpy of saturated strong solution at 𝑇1 and 𝑋𝑠𝑠
ℎ6 = enthalpy of weak solution at 𝑇6 and 𝑋𝑤𝑠
ℎ7 = enthalpy of saturated water vapor at 𝑇7
 Generator temperature = 𝑇1 = 𝑇7 = 𝑇𝐺
2. Condenser: The rate of heat transfer from the condenser
is;
ሶ − ℎ )
𝑄 ሶ = 𝑀 (ℎ 4.24
𝐶 𝑤 7 8
ℎ8 = enthalpy of saturated water liquid at 𝑇8
 Condenser temperature = 𝑇8 = 𝑇𝐶
3. Water pressure restrictor:
ℎ9 = ℎ8
ℎ9 = enthalpy of water liquid at 𝑇9
4. Evaporator: The rate of heat transfer to the evaporator i.e.
the refrigerating capacity is;
𝑄𝐸ሶ = 𝑀𝑤 (ℎ10ሶ − ℎ9 ) 4.25
= 𝑀𝑤 (ℎ10ሶ − ℎ8 ) 4.26
ℎ10 = enthalpy of water vapor at 𝑇10
Evaporator temperature =𝑇10 = 𝑇𝐸
5. Solution pressure restrictor:
ℎ3 = ℎ2
ℎ2 = enthalpy of solution at 𝑇2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑠𝑠
ℎ3 = enthalpy of solution at 𝑇3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑠𝑠
6. Absorber: the rate of heat transfer from the absorber is:
𝑄𝐴ሶ = 𝑀3 ℎ3 + 𝑀10 ℎ10 - 𝑀4 ℎ4 4.27
= 𝑀𝑠𝑠 ℎ2 + 𝑀𝑤 ℎ10 - 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ℎ4 4.28
ℎ4 = enthalpy of saturated weak solution at 𝑇4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑤𝑠
ℎ10 = enthalpy of saturated weak vapor at 𝑇𝐸
Absorber temperature = 𝑇4 = 𝑇𝐴
7. Heat exchanger: Assuming that heat losses to the
surroundings are negligible, the rate of heat transfer
between the strong and weak solutions is;
𝑄𝐻𝑋ሶ = 𝑀𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝑀𝑤𝑠 (ℎ6 − ℎ5 ) 4.29
8. Solution pump: The power input to the pump is;
𝑊𝑝ሶ = 𝑀𝑤𝑠 (ℎ5 − ℎ4 ) 4.30
ℎ5 = enthalpy of weak solution at 𝑇5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑤𝑠
 The difference between ℎ4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ5 is not distinguished on
the charts of specific enthalpy of LiBr – water solutions as
the temperature is approximately the same.
The coefficient of operation of the cycle is;
𝑄ሶ 𝐸 𝑀𝑤 ( ℎ10 − ℎ8 )
COP = = 4.31
𝑄ሶ 𝐺 𝑀𝑤 ℎ7 + 𝑀𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 − 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ℎ6
The second law efficiency of the cycle, given by the
equation below,
 −𝑄ሶ 𝐸 (1− 𝑇𝑜ൗ𝑇 )
η= 𝑟
4.32
𝑄ሶ 𝐺 1− 𝑇𝑜ൗ𝑇 + 𝑄ሶ 𝐶 1− 𝑇𝑜
ൗ𝑇𝑐𝑓,1 + 𝑄ሶ 𝐴 (1− 𝑇𝑜
ൗ𝑇𝑐𝑓,2 )
𝐻

where:
(𝑇𝐶𝐻𝑤 + 𝑇𝑐𝐻𝑤,𝑒 )
𝑇𝑟 = average temperature of chilled water =
2
4.33
(𝑇𝐻𝑤1 + 𝑇𝐻𝑤,𝑒 )
𝑇𝐻 = average temperature of hot water =
2
4.34
 (𝑇𝑐𝑤1 + 𝑇𝑐𝑤1,𝑒 )
𝑇𝑐𝑓,1 = average temperature of cooling water =
2
4.35
(𝑇𝑐𝑤2 + 𝑇𝑐𝑤2,𝑒 )
𝑇𝑐𝑓,2 = average temperature of cooling water =
2
4.36
𝑇𝑜 = ambient temperature
 The values of COP increase in general with increasing
evaporator and generator temperatures then at a certain
value of generator temperature it starts to decrease.
 The performance of aqueous LiBr cooling cycles using the
coefficient of performance
- COP increases to a maximum for higher generator
temperatures and then either decreases slightly or becomes
insensitive to generator temperature
- While in case of the Absorber, the COP deceases with
increase in adiabatic temperature of the absorber.
 Fig 4.15 shows the schematic of an ammonia-water
absorption refrigeration system.
 Compared to water-lithium bromide systems, this system
uses three additional components: a rectification column, a
dephlegmator and a sub- cooling heat exchanger (Heat
Exchanger-I).
 The function of rectification column and dephlegmator is to
reduce the concentration of water vapor at the exit of the
generator. Without these the vapor leaving the generator
may consist of five to ten percent of water.
 However, with rectification column and dephlegmator, the
concentration of water is reduced to less than one percent.
 The sub-cooling heat exchanger, which is normally of
counter-flow type is used to increase the refrigeration
effect and to ensure liquid entry into the refrigerant
expansion valve.
 Mass and energy balance equations for all the components
are the same as those of water-lithium bromide systems,
 However, the thermal energy input to the generator will be
different due to the heat transfer at the dephlegmator.
 Taking a control volume that includes the entire rectifying
column (generator + rectification column + dephlegmator)
as shown in Fig. 4.15, we can write the energy equation as;
𝑄𝑔 − 𝑄𝑑 = 𝑀10 ℎ10 + 𝑀6 ℎ6 − 𝑀4 ℎ4 4.36
 Writing the mass flow rates of strong (point 4) and weak
(point 6) solutions in terms of refrigerant flow rate and mass
fractions, we can write the above equation as;
𝑄𝑔 − 𝑄𝑑 = M [(ℎ10 − ℎ4 ) + 𝝀(ℎ6 − ℎ4 )] 4.37
A vapor absorption refrigeration system based on ammonia-
water (Fig.4.15) has refrigeration capacity of 100TR. The
various state properties of the system shown below are
given in the table. Taking the heat rejection rate in the reflux
condenser (𝑄𝑑 ) as 88KW. Find (a)the mass flow rates of
solution through the evaporator, strong solution and weak
solution; (b) enthalpy values not specified in the table and
(c) heat transfer rates at condenser, absorber, generator and
solution pump work (d) system COP.
a). mass flow rate through evaporator, 𝑀1 is given by;
𝑄𝑒 𝑄𝑒 3.517 𝑥 100
𝑀1 = = = = 0.313Kg/s
ℎ14 − ℎ13 ℎ14 − ℎ12 1442.3−318.7
Circulation ratio, 𝛌 is given by;
𝑀𝑤𝑠 𝜁10 − 𝜁7
𝛌= = = 5.345
𝑀1 𝜁7 − 𝜁8
Therefore, mass flow rate of weak solution;
𝑀𝑤𝑠 = 𝑀1 𝑥 𝛌 = 1.673Kg/s
Mass flow rate for strong solution;
𝑀𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀1 𝑥 (1 + λ) = 1.986Kg/s
b). state points 1,7,8, and 13;
From energy balance across Heat Exchanger – 1
(ℎ11 − ℎ12 ) = (ℎ1 − ℎ14 )
ℎ1 = ℎ14 + (ℎ11 − ℎ12 ) = 1467.9KJ/Kg
From energy balance across solution heat exchanger;
𝑀𝑠𝑠 (ℎ4 − ℎ3 ) = 𝑀𝑤𝑠 (ℎ6 - ℎ7 )
ℎ7 = 1.43KJ/Kg
Since expansion through expansion valves is isenthalpic;
ℎ8 = ℎ7 = 1.43KJ/Kg
ℎ12 = ℎ13 = 318.7𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔
c). From energy balance;
Heat transfer rate at condenser;
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑀10 ℎ10 − ℎ11 = 365.5𝐾𝑊
Heat transfer rate at absorber;
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑀1 ℎ1 + 𝑀8 ℎ8 − 𝑀2 ℎ2 = 577.4KW
Heat transfer rate at the generator;
𝑄𝑔 = 𝑀10 ℎ10 + 𝑀6 ℎ6 + 𝑄𝑑 − 𝑀4 ℎ4 = 676.5𝐾𝑊
Power input to pump;
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑀2 ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 2.78𝐾𝑊
System COP is given by;
𝑄𝑒 351.7
COP = = = 0.518
𝑄𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝 676.5−2.78
 Primary refrigerants are working fluids used in vapor
compression systems. Primary refrigerants should;
a. be non-flammable, non-explosive, and non-toxic and it
should not contaminate foods or damage the environment in
the event of leakage.
b. be non-corrosive, and not react with lubricants, moisture,
and materials used in plant construction.
c. have moderate pressure
d. have a high COP value, i.e. low compressor per input
power unit of refrigerating capacity.
e. have a moderate temperature after compression. A low
discharge temperature reduces the risk of oil decomposition
and overheating of the compressor.
f. be low in cost and readily available.
 Secondary refrigerants are used as a heat transfer medium,
with a change of temperature but no change of state.
 The secondary refrigerants mostly used in marine plants
are brine and trichloroethylene.
 Brine is normally used for temperature down to -34°C,
below which it is extremely viscous resulting in
unacceptable pumping losses.
 Trichloroethylene is used for temperature down to -73°C. In
its gaseous state, it is both toxic and heavier than air, has a
maximum permissible concentration in air of 200ppm.
 Trichloroethylene acts as a solvent to most synthetic
rubbers and jointing materials. It is non-flammable and
non-toxic.
 The liquid is both heavier than, and immiscible with water,
so any water in the system will freeze at temperatures
below 0°C.
 Marine refrigerants used on board ships are as follows;
- R11 is used in marine air conditioning, especially for cruise
ships, and for cleaning out marine refrigeration machinery.
- R12 is used for marine air conditioning and food stores in
ships, and has universal use in refrigerated containers.
- R22 used for marine air conditioning and food stores in
new ships, and in most central cargo refrigeration plant,
fishing boat refrigerated storage and freezing plant, and
liquid gas re-liquefication plant.
- R502 are rarely used but when used for low temperature
refrigeration.
- Ammonia (R717) is used for large freezing and low temperature
storage installations on board fish factory vessels, and has very
occasional use in central cargo refrigeration plant.
- Refrigerants are identified by international numerical code
which is prefixed by ‘R’ because of their complex chemical
formulae.
- R11, R12 and R502 are fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC) refrigerants, and R22 is a hydrofluorocarbon (HCFC)
refrigerant.
 Examine the performance of engineering devices in relation to the
second law of thermodynamics
 Define exergy, which is the maximum useful work that can be
obtained from a system at a given state in a specific environment
 Define reversible work, which is the maximum useful work that can
be obtained as a system undergoes a process between two specified
states
 Define the exergy destruction, which is the wasted work potential
during a process as a result of irreversibilities
 Define the second law efficiency
 Develop the exergy balance relation
 Apply the exergy balance to closed systems and control volumes.
 Thermal power plants (steam power plants, gas turbine
power plants, nuclear power plants, internal combustion
engines etc.) are widely utilized throughout the world for
electricity generation.
 In the past, energy-related engineering systems were
designed, and their performance evaluated primarily by
using the energy balance deduced from first law of
thermodynamics which deals with the quantity of energy
and asserts that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
 The law was also used to evaluate through energetic
performance criteria the performance of thermal power
plants including electrical power and thermal efficiency.
 In recent years the second law analysis, also known as
exergy analysis, has drawn the interest of energy engineers
and scientist. The exergetic performance based on the
second law of thermodynamics has found as useful method
in the design, evaluation, optimization and improvement of
thermal power plants.
 The exergetic performance analysis does not only
determine magnitudes, location and causes of
irreversibilities in the plants, but also provides more
meaningful assessment of plant individual components
efficiency.
 These points of the exergetic performance analysis are the
basic differences from energetic performance analysis.
 Therefore, it can be said that performing exergetic and
energetic analyses together can give a complete depiction
of system characteristics.
 Such a comprehensive analysis will be a more convenient
approach for the performance evaluation and
determination of the steps towards improvement.
 Exergy is a thermodynamic concept which enables us to
articulate what is consumed by all working systems,
whether they are man-made systems such as thermo-
chemical engines and electricity-driven heat pumps or
biological systems such as microbes, plants, and animals
including the human body.
 Exergy is the amount of work obtained when a piece of
matter is brought to a state of thermodynamic equilibrium
with the common components of its surroundings by means
of a reversible process.
 Exergy analysis provides an effective technique for
designing, evaluating, and optimizing the performance of a
thermal system. Exergy analysis represents the third step in
the plant system analysis, following the mass and the
energy balances.
 The aim of the exergy analysis is to identify the
magnitudes and the locations of exergy losses, in order to
improve the existing systems, processes or components, or
to develop new processes or systems.
 Exergy losses include the exergy flowing to the
surroundings, whereas exergy destruction indicates the
loss of exergy within the system boundary due to
irreversibility.
 Let us assume a building environmental control system
such as lighting, heating, or cooling systems. Energy and
matter are supplied into the system so that it works.
 The inputs are exactly the same as the outputs under
steady-state conditions. This is due to the law of energy and
mass conservation.
 If it is so, why do we not reuse the energy and matter as
output directly?
 If we could have used the wasted energy and matter, most
of the so-called energy and environmental problems would
have been already solved.
 The most general answer to the above question would be
that the energy and matter as input are different from those
as output – i.e. the energy and matter as output have
something that a system in question must discard.
 To make the answer clearer, we use the concepts of exergy
and entropy, which can express the difference in energy
and matter between input and output explicitly.
 Exergy and entropy, both of which are thermodynamic
concepts, “exergy” is the concept to articulate “what is
consumed” and “entropy” is “what is disposed of”. Stating
in the other way, “exergy” is the concept, which quantifies
the potential of energy and matter to disperse in the course
of their diffusion into their environment and “entropy” is the
concept which quantifies the state of dispersion, to what
extent the energy and matter in question are dispersed.
 As shown in the building envelope system in Fig. 5.1 we
assume a steady-state condition that the right-hand side of
the system is warmer than the left-hand side - the particles
in the warmer side of the building envelope vibrate rather
strongly; i.e., the energy flowing into the building envelope
accompanies a certain amount of exergy.
 The vibration disperses in the course of energy transfer;
that is, a part of the exergy is consumed as the exergy
flows. Thus, the energy flowing out the building envelope is
accompanied with a smaller amount of exergy.
 As a result of the dispersion of vibration, the state of
dispersion as a whole within the system increases. This is
the generation of entropy, the law of entropy increase,
which is parallel to the law of energy and mass
conservation. The amount of increased entropy is
proportional to that of consumed exergy and the
proportional constant is the ambient temperature in the
Kelvin scale as will be described later.
 Since the steady-state condition is being assumed, the
distribution of the temperature inside the building
envelope is unchanged. This implies that the amount of
entropy contained by the whole of the building envelope
system is constant.
 The entropy of a substance, which is a function of
temperature and pressure, remains unchanged unless the
temperature and the pressure of the substance increases or
decreases.
 As described above, a certain amount of entropy is
generated due to exergy consumption within the building
envelope system. This generated entropy must be
discarded into the surrounding (outdoors), from the
building envelope system, otherwise it contradicts the
assumption of the steady-state condition and the
characteristics of the entropy as a function of temperature
and pressure.
 It is important to recognize that the energy flowing out the
building envelope is accompanied with not only a
decreased amount of exergy but also an increased amount
of entropy. Disposing of the generated entropy from the
system makes room for feeding on exergy and consuming
it again.
 The process described above is called the exergy-entropy
process.
 Table 5.1 shows the four fundamental steps of exergy-
entropy process. Any working systems (heating and
cooling systems inclusive) perform these four steps in
series and cyclically.
 Energy is the concept to be conserved so that the energy
flowing in must be equal to the sum of the energy stored
within the system and the energy flowing out from the
system. This energy balance can be expressed as follows.
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡 + 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.1
 Assuming steady-state condition here, there is no energy
storage and hence equ. 5.1 becomes:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.2
 Setting up the entropy equation from equs (5.1) and (5.2)
above. Entropy flows into the system as heat flows in and
some amount of entropy is generated inevitably within the
system in the course of heat transmission. The sum of the
entropy input and the entropy generated must be in part
stored or in part flows out of the system. Therefore, the
entropy balance equation can be expressed in the
following form.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑆𝑠𝑡 + 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.3
 Also assuming the steady-state condition, there is no
entropy storage as well as no energy storage. Therefore,
equ (5.3) becomes:
𝑆𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.4
 The fact that the outgoing entropy from the system includes
the entropy generated within the system suggests that the
system disposes of the generated entropy with the entropy
output.
 Combining the energy and entropy balance equations
brings about the exergy balance equation. Entropy (or
entropy rate) has a dimension of J/K (or W/K) and energy
(or energy rate) has a dimension of J (or W). Therefore, we
need a kind of trick to combine the two equations i.e. the
dispersed energy level of the resource surrounded by the
environmental space is the product of the entropy
contained by the resource and its environmental
temperature in the Kelvin scale. The same expression
applies to the waste discarded by the system.
 Therefore, the entropy balance equation can be rewritten
as follows:
(𝑆𝑖𝑛 ) × 𝑇𝑒 + (𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ) × 𝑇𝑒 = (𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) × 𝑇𝑒 5.5
Where 𝑇𝑒 = Environmental temperature.
 The product of entropy and environmental temperature is
called “anergy”, which implies dispersed energy. Using the
term “anergy”, anergy balance equation (equ. 5.5) can be
expressed in the following form:
𝐴𝑖𝑛 + 𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.6
 Provided that “anergy” is a portion of energy that is already
dispersed, then the other portion is not yet dispersed
(exergy).
 Energy therefore consists of two parts: the dispersed part
and the part, which can disperse.
 Now let us take the difference of the energy balance
equation (5.2) and anergy balance equation (5.6). This
operation brings about;
[(𝐸𝑖𝑛 ) – (𝐴𝑖𝑛 )] - (𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑛 ) = [(𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) – (𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 )] 5.7
 “Anergy generated” is such energy that originally had an
ability to disperse and that has just dispersed. We can state
this in the other way; that anergy generation is equivalent to
exergy consumption. Using the term “exergy”, equation
(5.7) is reduced to:
𝐵𝑖𝑛 - 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.8
 This is the exergy balance equation for a system under
steady-state condition such as the building envelope
system shown in Fig. 5.1.
 Exergy consumed, which is equivalent to anergy
generated, is the product of entropy generated and the
environmental temperature.
𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑒 x 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 5.9
 Exergy consumed is exactly proportional to the entropy
generated with the proportional constant of environmental
temperature.
 One of the main uses of the exergy concept in an exergy
balance is the analysis of thermal systems.
 The exergy balance is a statement of the law of degradation
of energy. Degradation of energy is due to the
irreversibilities of all real processes.
 Because open system analysis is much more relevant to the
analysis of thermal plants or chemical systems than closed
system analysis, the exergy balance of an open steady state
system, is shown in Fig. 5.5. The exergy balance is stated
around a control region delimited by specific boundaries.
𝐸ሶ 𝑖 + 𝐸ሶ 𝑄 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜 + 𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ + 𝐼 ሶ 5.10
Where:
𝐸ሶ 𝑖 = σ𝑖 𝑀ሶ 𝑖 𝑒𝑖 5.11
𝐸ሶ 𝑜 = σ𝑜 𝑀ሶ 𝑜 𝑒𝑜 5.12
𝑇0
ሶ ሶ
𝐸 = σ𝑖 𝑄𝑟 1 −
𝑄
5.13
𝑇1
 The expression for specific exergy is written as;
𝐶02
e = (h - ℎ0 ) - 𝑇0 (S - 𝑆0 ) + 𝑒𝑐ℎ + + g𝑍0 5.14
2
 The exergy flow to the control region is always greater than
that from the control region. The difference between the
two, the rate of loss of exergy, is called the irreversibility
rate. The irreversibility rate is calculated from the Gouy-
Stodola relation, which states that the irreversibility rate of
a process is the product of the entropy generation rate for
all systems participating in the process and the
temperature of the environment
 ሶ
𝑄𝑟
ሶ
ሶ𝐼 = 𝑇0 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ሶ ሶ
= 𝑇0 σ0 𝑀0 𝑆0 − σ𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑆𝑖 − σ𝑟 5.15
𝑇𝑟
 The various exergy terms, which go into the exergy
balance, are presented in Appendix C.

Definitions of Exergetic Efficiencies

 Three definitions of exergetic efficiencies for steady state
processes are stated here. These are the conventional or
simple exergetic efficiency, the rational exergetic
efficiency and the utilizable exergy coefficient.
 The simplest form of exergetic efficiency is the
conventional exergetic efficiency. For the formulation of this
efficiency the exergy balance for the incoming and
outgoing flows are set up, where I is the irreversibility.
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼 ሶ 5.16
 Referring to figure 5.1
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑖 + 𝐸ሶ 𝑄 5.17
𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸ሶ 0 + 𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ 5.18
 The traditional exergetic efficiency is the ratio of the total
outgoing exergy flow to the total incoming exergy flow:
𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
η= 5.19
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛
 This is an unambiguous definition and can be used for all
process plants and units.
 Unfortunately, it gives a good impression of the
thermodynamic perfection of a system only when all the
components of the incoming exergy flow are transformed
to other components, e.g., in the case for power stations or
for building heating and cooling systems. The traditional
exergetic efficiency for power stations is expressed as:
𝑊ሶ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡
η= 5.20
𝐸ሶ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
 When all the components of the incoming exergy flows are not
transformed to other component, the untransformed
components give a false impression of the performance of the
process plant or unit.
 For example, if we consider a chemical reactor with a zero
reactive conversion factor, the input exergy rate will equal the
output exergy rate and the traditional exergetic efficiency will
equal 1. There are no irreversibilities in the reactor but it does
not produce anything.
 In this case, the traditional exergetic efficiency gives a false
impression of the thermodynamic performance of the reactor.
To solve this problem other exergetic efficiencies have been
proposed.
 The rational exergetic efficiency is defined as a ratio of the
desired exergy output to the exergy used or consumed
𝐸ሶ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼ሶ
Ψ= =1- 5.21
𝐸ሶ 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐸ሶ 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
 𝐸ሶ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the sum of all exergy transfers from the
system, which must be regarded as constituting the desired
output, plus any by-product, which is produced by the
system. The desired output is determined by examining the
function of the system.
 𝐸ሶ 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 is the required exergy consumed for the process to
be performed.
 The rational efficiency can be applied to any system,
except to purely dissipative systems, because no desired
product can be defined in this case.
 As an example of formulation of rational efficiency
consider the refrigeration plant evaporator shown in Fig.
5.6.
 The cold chamber may be considered as a thermal energy
reservoir at a temperature 𝑇𝐿 <𝑇0 .
 Referring to Fig. 5.6, the exergy balance for the control
region indicated by the dashed contour may be written:
𝑇0
(𝐸ሶ1 − 𝐸ሶ 2 ) - 𝐼 ሶ = - 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 1 − 5.22
𝑇𝐿
 The desired output is the increase in the exergy of the cold
chamber, which since 𝑇𝐿 <𝑇0 , is associated with heat
transfer from the cold chamber. Thus:
𝑇0
ሶ ሶ
𝐸𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = - 𝑄𝐿 1 − 5.23
𝑇𝐿
 By incorporating Eqs. (5.22) and (5.23) into Eq. (5.21), the
rational efficiency for this system is expressed as:
𝑇
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 𝑇0 −1 𝐼ሶ
Ψ= 𝐿
=1- 5.24
𝐸ሶ 1 − 𝐸ሶ 2 𝐸ሶ 1 − 𝐸ሶ 2
 And the irreversibility rate is;
𝑄ሶ 𝐿
𝐼 ሶ = 𝑇0 𝑆2ሶ − 𝑆1ሶ − 5.25
𝑇𝐿
 This form of efficiency is an improvement on the traditional
exergetic efficiency, because it subtracts the
untransformed components from the incoming and
outgoing streams.
 To any material, heat and work stream can be associated an
exergy content, which is completely defined by
temperature, pressure and composition of the stream itself
and of a reference state (the environment in which the
system operates).
 It is, therefore, possible to compute the exergy content of
all incoming and outgoing streams to and from a system
and to establish an overall exergy balance over any system,
as shown in Fig. 5.7.
 The total exergy input, 𝐸𝑖𝑛 , of a real system is always higher
than its exergy output, E", because a certain amount of
exergy is irreversibly destroyed within the system.
 This exergy, generally referred to as the internal exergy
losses or exergy destruction, 𝐼𝑖𝑛 is directly linked to the
thermodynamic irreversibilities in the system
 As illustrated in Fig. 5.7, part of the exergy output from the
system may dissipate into the environment as heat losses,
sewage waste or smokestack effluents, for example.
 This wasted exergy, no longer usable by subsequent
processes, constitutes the external losses, 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡 .
 It is thus more appropriate, from the standpoint of
downstream operations, to consider the exergy that
remains utilizable, 𝐸𝑢 , rather than the total output, E".
 Only part of the utilizable exergy is produced by the
system through the physicochemical phenomena that take
place within its boundaries.
 The rest of the exergy that leaves the system with the
utilizable exergy stream is a part of the exergy input, which
has simply gone through the system without undergoing
any transformation.
 This fundamental fact was recognized by Kostenko, who
gave the name transiting exergy, 𝐸𝑡𝑟 , to this fraction of the
exergy supplied to a system.
 Typically, in a chemical reactor, part (but not all, because of
temperature and pressure changes) of the exergy
associated with unreacted feed or inerts would constitute
transiting exergy.
 Transiting exergy was further characterized and algorithms
have been developed for computing it directly. On the
basis of these observations a new coefficient of
thermodynamic efficiency, the utilizable exergy coefficient,
𝜂𝑢 , has been defined.
 The exergetic efficiency with transiting exergy is defined
as follows:
𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑡
ሶ − 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡ሶ − 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 𝐸ሶ 𝑝𝑢
𝜂𝑢 = = = 5.26
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 𝐸ሶ 𝑐
Where 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 is the transiting exergy rate, 𝐸ሶ 𝑝𝑢 is the produced
utilizable exergy rate and 𝐸ሶ 𝑐 is the consumed exergy rate.
 It is proved that, the decrease in the transiting exergy, 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟 ,
improves the conversion performance of the system. The
ሶ , 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡
utilizable exergy coefficient decreases as 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑡 ሶ and 𝐸ሶ 𝑡𝑟
decrease.
 An example on the use of the various exergetic definitions
is shown in Appendix D.
 Here we will look at the use of the concept of exergy in the
assessment of air-conditioning applications. The concepts
of physical exergy and chemical exergy play an important
role in assessing the true thermodynamic merit of air-
conditioning applications.
 The objective of most air-conditioning applications is to
bring a humid air mixture to a state (temperature and
composition) that differs from the conditions found in the
atmospheric air.
 The classical way of describing the thermodynamic
properties of humid air is to view it as a perfect gas mixture
of dry air (a) and water vapor (v) (Table 5.2).
 The ideal gas constants of these two components are the
values corresponding to T  300 K and the low-pressure
limit.
 The state of any humid air is specified by its temperature T,
its pressure P, and one of the mole fractions 𝑋𝑎 or 𝑋𝑣 since
𝑋𝑎 + 𝑋𝑣 = I.
 The composition of humid air is described in the field of air
conditioning by different ways:
 The mass ratio called specific humidity or humidity ratio, ω,
which represents the number of kilograms of water to 1 kg
of dry air in the given mixture:
𝑀𝑣
ω= 5.27
𝑀𝑎
 The mole fraction ratio, 𝜔,
ഥ which represents the number of
moles of water corresponding to 1 mole of dry air in the
given mixture is:
𝑋𝑣
ഥ=
𝜔 5.28
𝑋𝑎
 The relative humidity, Φ, which represents the number of
moles of water in the actual mixture over the number of
moles of water in the saturated mixture at temperature T is:
𝑋𝑣 𝑇,𝑃 𝑃𝑣
Φ= = 5.29
𝑋𝑎,𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇,𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑇)
 The specific total flow exergy of humid air is deduced from
the definition of the physical flow exergy applied to a
mixture of ideal gases. It can be expressed differently
depending on how the composition of humid air is
described:
 The specific total flow exergy per mole of a humid air
mixture is:
𝑇 𝑇 𝑃 𝑋𝑎 𝑋𝑣
ҧ + 𝑋𝑣 𝐶𝑝,𝑣
𝑒ഥ𝑡 = (𝑋𝑎 𝐶𝑝,𝑎 ҧ )𝑇0 − 1 − ln ത 0 ln
+ 𝑅𝑇 ത 0 𝑋𝑎 ln
+ 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑋𝑣 ln
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑋0,𝑎 𝑋0,𝑣
5.30
where, subscript 0 indicates ambient properties
 Two alternative versions of this equation are used for
engineering calculations. The first alternative uses the
mole ratios 𝜔
ഥ and 𝜔0 to describe the composition of the
actual and the ambient air mixture:
𝑇 𝑇 𝑃 ഥ0
1+ 𝜔 ഥ
𝜔 ഥ
𝜔
ҧ + 𝜔𝐶𝑝,𝑣 𝑇0
𝑒𝑡ҧ = 𝐶𝑝,𝑎 − 1 − ln ത 0 ln
+ 𝑅𝑇 ത 0
+ 𝑅𝑇 1+ 𝜔
ഥ ln + ln
𝑇0 𝑇 0 𝑃0 ഥ
1+ 𝜔 ഥ
1+ 𝜔 ഥ0
𝜔
5.31

 The second alternative reports the specific total flow

exergy per kilogram of dry air:
 ҧ + 𝜔𝐶𝑝,𝑣
𝐶𝑝,𝑎 𝑇 𝑇 𝑃 ഥ0
1+ 𝜔
𝑒𝑡ҧ = 𝑇0 − 1 − ln ത 0 ln
+ 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅ത 𝑇0 ቆ 1 − 𝜔
ഥ ln +
ഥ
1+ 𝜔 𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑃0 ഥ
1+ 𝜔
 The specific total flow exergy of dry air is deduced by
setting ω and 𝜔
ഥ to zero
𝑇 𝑇 𝑃
𝑒𝑡,𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝,𝑎 𝑇0 −1− ln + 𝑅𝑎 𝑇0 ln + 𝑅𝑎 𝑇0 ln(1 + 𝜔
ഥ0 ) 5.34
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑃0
 The specific total flow exergy of liquid water is also
required for the case of exergy analysis of air-conditioning
applications. The specific total flow exergy per kilogram of
liquid water, w, yields:
𝑒𝑡,𝑤 = ℎ𝑤 𝑇, 𝑃 − ℎ0 𝑇0 , 𝑃0,𝑤 − 𝑇0 𝑇, 𝑃 − 𝑆0 (𝑇0 , 𝑃0,𝑤 ) 5.35
 Where the partial pressure of water vapor in
atmospheric air is given by:
𝑃0,𝑤 = 𝑋0,𝑣 𝑃0 5.36
 The total flow exergy of liquid water can be
approximated by using the properties of respective
neighboring states on the two-phase dome of the
Mollier chart:
𝑒𝑡,𝑤  ℎ𝑓 𝑇 − ℎ𝑔 𝑇0 − 𝑇0 𝑆𝑓 𝑇 − 𝑆𝑔 𝑇0 + ሾ𝑃 −
 Here we will describe the general characteristics of six
passive systems from the viewpoint of exergy-entropy
process.
 As suggested above, rational passive (bio-climatic) design
is a prerequisite to realize low-exergy systems for heating
and cooling
 With the view of passive (bio-climatic) design as exergy-
entropy process, passive design is to design a route in
which the exergy available from our immediate
surroundings are rationally consumed and the generated
entropy is rationally discarded into the atmosphere.
 Low-exergy systems for heating and cooling would be such
systems consistent with passive design described above.
 When dealing with energy flows of different nature, energy
analysis alone can lead to misleading results, as it does not
account for energy quality. This problem can be partially
overcome by the use of exergy analysis.
 Exergy is defined as the maximum shaft work that can be
done by a system in a specified reference environment.
 The exergy content of a flow depends on the quality of the
energy content. Unlike energy, exergy is not conserved and
can be destroyed, representing the deterioration of energy
quality.
 The exergy content of a material flow is generally divided
in four parts:
- Physical,
- Chemical,
- Kinetic and
- Potential.
Potential and kinetic exergy flows coincide with their energy
counterparts.
For chemical exergy, substantial differences can be found
when analyzing systems involving a more advanced
chemistry.
In this case combustion is the only chemical reaction taken
into account, and it is assumed that the specific chemical
exergy content of the fuel can be calculated based on its
LHV and its H/C ratio.
Finally, the physical component of an exergy flow is defined
as:
ሶ = 𝑚ሾ
𝐵𝑝ℎ ሶ ℎ − ℎ𝑜 + 𝑆 − 𝑆𝑜 ] 5.52
 where 𝐵ሶ , h, and s are exergy flow, specific enthalpy, and
specific entropy respectively, while subscript 0 is reference
conditions, which in this note is measurements of seawater
temperature.
 Energy flows that are not associated to material stream
flows are also associated to a corresponding exergy flow.
 For work and electricity the exergy exchanged coincides
with the correspondent amount of energy, while for heat,
the exergy exchanged depends on the temperature at
which the exchange takes place, according to Eq. (5.53):
𝑇𝑜
ሶ ሶ
𝐵ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄(1 − ) 5.53
𝑇
 With reference to an open system, the exergy balance of
the system can be expressed in accordance with Eq. (5.54):
𝐵ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐵ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼 ሶ 5.54
 where 𝐵ሶ 𝑖𝑛 and 𝐵ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 represent the flow of exergy entering
and leaving the component, respectively. The term 𝐼 ሶ is
known as irreversibility rate (or exergy destruction) and
can be calculated, in its general form, as:
ሶ
𝐼 ሶ = 𝑇𝑜 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 5.55
Where 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ሶ represent the entropy generation rate in the
component.
 Four different quantities measuring efficiency according to
exergy analysis will be used based on the work of Kotas
and Lior and Zhang:
σ 𝐵ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜀𝑡 = σ 𝐵ሶ 𝑖𝑛
5.56
Where eq. 5.56 is the total exergy efficiency (𝜀𝑡 )
 In the case of heat exchangers Eq. (5.56) can be
interpreted as presented in Eq. (5.57) by assuming the
reduction in exergy of the hot stream as the input to the
system and the increase in exergy of the cold stream as the
desired output:
𝐵ሶ 𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝐵ሶ 𝑐,𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑡 = 5.57
𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑖𝑛
 The total efficiency (𝜀𝑢 ) is used as defined by Lior and
zhang according to equation (5.58)
𝑊ሶ 𝑢 − σ 𝑊ሶ 𝑝 +σ 𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑢 + σ 𝐵ሶ 𝑐,𝑢
𝜀𝑢 = σ 𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑝 + σ 𝐵ሶ 𝑐,𝑝 + σ 𝐵ሶ 𝑐ℎ,𝑝
5.58
 where the subscripts u, p, h and c represent the “useful”
output of the system, the “paid” input to the system, heating
and cooling flows. Here, the equation originally proposed
by Lior and Zhang was adapted by also including fuel
exergy inputs to the denominator of the fraction. The task
efficiency is not used for heat exchangers, as depending on
whether it is applied to a heater or a cooler the result
would be 𝜀𝑢 = 𝜀𝑡 or 𝜀𝑢 = 𝜀𝑡 , none of which would add
−1
significant contribution to the analysis.
 The efficiency loss ratio (𝛿) represents the proportion of the
exergy input to a component that is lost due to
irreversibilities
𝐼ሶ
𝛿= 5.59
𝐵ሶ 𝑖𝑛
 In the case of heat exchangers, the difference 𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 -
𝐵ሶ ℎ,𝑖𝑛 is used as denominator to the equation instead in
order to be consistent with the definition of total exergy
efficiency.
 The relative irreversibility (γ) is defined as the ratio
between the exergy destroyed in the component “i” and
the total rate of exergy destruction in the whole system:
𝐼𝑖ሶ
γ= σ 𝐼𝑖ሶ
5.60