FLOW MEASUREMENT

PART II
Contents: 2
Variable Head or Differential Meter
 Orifice Plates
 Venturi Tubes
 Flow Nozzle
 Dall Tubes
 Pitot Tube
 Annubar Tube
 Elbow Tap
 Weir
 Flume
Variable Head or Differential Meter 3
 Working: A restriction in the line of a flowing fluid, introduced by the orifice plate or
venturi tube or elbow, produces a differential pressure across the restriction element
which is proportional to the flow rate. Head flow meters operate on the principle of
placing a restriction in the line to cause a differential pressure head. The differential
pressure, which is caused by the head, is measured and converted to a flow
measurement.
 The devices in general, can therefore be termed as “obstruction type” flow meters.
Variable Head or Differential Meter 4
 The proportionality is not a linear one but has a square root of relationship in that flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. This is derived from
Bernoulli’s theorem. Velocity head is defined as the vertical distance through which a
liquid would fall to attain a given velocity. Pressure head is the vertical distance
through which a column of the flowing liquid would rise in an open-end tube as a
result of the static pressure.
V = velocity of flowing fluid
2𝑔ℎ Q = volume flow rate
𝑉= 𝜌 W = mass flow rate
A = cross – sectional area of pipe through which fluid
𝐾 is flowing
2𝑔ℎ
𝑄= h = differential head (pressure) across the restriction
element
𝐾𝐴 𝜌
2𝑔ℎ 𝐴1𝐴2
𝑊= 𝜌 where 𝐾 2𝑔
𝐾𝐴 = 𝐴21 −𝐴22
𝑄𝑎 𝑐 𝑡 𝑢 g = acceleration due to gravity
Coefficient of discharge: 𝐶𝑑 ρ = density of the flowing fluid
𝑄𝑖 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎 𝐶
= 𝑙
𝐾=
1− 𝛽 4

C = discharge coefficient
β = diameter ratio = d (diameter of restriction element)/D (inside diameter of the pipe)
Variable Head Flow Meters 5
 Rate of Discharge: 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation (ideal flow assumption)
𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝑝1 1 = 𝑝2 2
2 2
+ +
 The differential pressure head ∆ℎ is given by:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
=
∆ℎ𝜌𝑔
 𝑄𝑎 𝑐 𝑡 𝑢 𝑎 𝑙 is always less than 𝑄𝑖 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎 𝑙 as there are losses due to friction and
eddying motions.
Merits and Demerits – Differential Flow Meter 6
 Advantages of Differential Flow meter
 Relatively low cost for large lines
 Offers widest application coverage of any type of meter
 High accuracy (0.25 to 2 %)
 Easily removable without tripping of the process
 Highly adaptable
 Disadvantages & Limitations
 Relatively higher permanent pressure loss is involved
 Difficult to use for slurry services
 Exhibits square root relationship between head and flow rate, rather than linear characteristics,
which limits the usable flow range ability to a 3:1 to 5:1 range.
 Low flow rates are not easily measured
 Faces difficulty to measure pulsating flow.
The position of minimum pressure is located slightly downstream from the restriction at a point where the
stream is the narrowest and is called the vena – contracta. Beyond this point, the pressure again rises but
does not return to the upstream value resulting in a permanent pressure loss.
Parts of a Differential Flow meter 7
 It comprises two parts:
Primary Element
Secondary Element
Parts of a Differential Flow meter – Primary Elements 8

Primary element causes restriction in the path of flow and produces differential pressure. It
comprises
 i) Orifice plates
 ii) Venturi tubes
 iii) Flow nozzle
 iv) Dall tubes
 v) Pitot tubes
 vi) Annubar tubes
 vii) Elbow taps
 viii) Weir
 ix) Flume
Parts of a Differential Flow meter – Secondary Elements 9

Secondary element measures the differential pressure. It comprises

 manometer
 bellow meter
 force balance
 ring balance.
Orifice 10
 The orifice meter when installed in small to moderate sized pipes is probably the
cheapest and simplest flow measuring device at present available for metering liquids,
gases and vapours.
 It is not suitable for high viscous liquids or fluids in a pulsating or extremely turbulent
condition.
 When the fluid flows through the orifice, its velocity increases and the diameter of the
jet decreases to minimum at a point v, known as the vena contracta.
 The jet expands until it again occupies the full bore of the pipe.
 The static pressure profile first shows a gradual decrease over the distance L to M due to
friction losses in the pipe.
Orifice 11
 From M to P, as light rise occurs due to the resistance of the orifice plate.
 A sharp drop in the pressure occurs from P to R due to the fluid velocity through the
orifice. Finally, there is a partial recovery of pressure from R to S.
 The net pressure loss due to friction and turbulence across the orifice is, typically,
about 65% of the pressure difference measured by d/p diaphragm.
 The fluid flow is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference.
Orifice 12

 Advantages of Orifice
- Simple construction.
- Inexpensive.
- Easily fitted between flanges.
- No moving parts.
- Large range of sizes and opening ratios.
- Suitable for most gases and liquids.
- Well understood and proven.
- Price does not increase dramatically with size.
Orifice 13

 Disadvantages of Orifice
- Inaccuracy, typically 1%.
- Low rangeability, typically 4:1.
- Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity fluctuations.
- Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects measurement accuracy.
- Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Viscosity limits measuring range.
- Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is maintained.
- Pipeline must be full (typically for liquids).
Orifice 14

 Orifice Plate Designs:

1.Concentric – commonly used for general applications (gas, liquid & vapour).
2.Eccentric – recommended for fluids with extraneous matter to a degree that would clog
up concentric type.
3. Segmental – recommended for fluids combine with vapour or vapour with fluids.

 Types of Orifice Plate Entrance

1. Square Edge – applicable for higher pipe Reynolds Number; typical Re 500 to 10,000
2. Quadrant – for lower pipe Reynolds Number; typically ranges from Re 250 to 3300.
3. Conical – for Reynolds Number typically range from Re 25 to 75.
Venturi Tubes 15
 Venturi meter is used instead of an orifice plate in process systems where it is
important to minimize permanent pressure loss across the restriction device.
 In venturi, the restricting element is a tapered tube instead of sharp-edge orifice.
 The tube gives a smoother velocity change which results in a small permanent pressure
loss of approximately 10% of the differential pressure measurement.
Venturi Tubes 16
 Advantages of Venturi
- Less significant pressure drop across restriction.
- Less unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Requires less straight pipe up and downstream.

 Disadvantages of Venturi
- More expensive.
- Bulky - requires large section for installation.
Comparison Orifice and Venturi Meters 17
1.Orifice reducing element is sharp edged while venturi is tapered tube.
2. Permanent pressure loss of orifice is 65% of measured d/p while venturi is only 10%.
3.Venturi tube is less sensitive to Reynolds Number and gives more accurate
measurement when the process flow varies over a wide range.
4. Venturi tube is less affected by dirty fluid which build up deposits at orifice plates and
pressure tap connections.
5.Venturi tube meter is more costly compared to orifice plate costly compared to orifice
plate and requires greater length of pipeline.
6. Orifice plate is relatively easy to change for new range.
Flow Nozzle 18
 Flow nozzle is a restriction consisting of an elliptical contoured inlet and a cylindrical
throat section.
 Pressure taps used to measure the difference in static pressure created by flow nozzle are
commonly located one pipe diameter (1D) upstream and ½ pipe diameter (1/2D)
downstream from the inlet face of the nozzle.
 The Flow Nozzle is similar to the venturi but are in the shape of an ellipse. They have
a higher flow capacity than orifice plates.
 Another main difference between the flow nozzle and the venturi is that although they
have similar inlet nozzles, the flow nozzle has no exit section.
 These devices are more cost effective, but as such they provide less accuracy than
venturis, and have a higher unrecoverable pressure loss.
Flow Nozzle 19
 Flow Nozzles can handle larger solids and be used for higher velocities, greater
turbulence and high temperature applications.
 They are often used with fluid or steam applications containing some suspended solids,
and in applications where the product is being discharged from service.
Flow Nozzle 20
 Advantages of Flow nozzle
- High velocity applications.
- Operate in higher turbulence.
- Used with fluids containing suspended solids.
- More cost effective than venturis.
- Physically smaller than the venturi.

 Disadvantages of Flow nozzle

- More expensive than orifice plates.
- Higher unrecoverable pressure loss.
Dall Tube 21
 Dall tube consists of two conical reducers inserted into the fluid – carrying pipe. It has
a shape very similar to venturi without throat.
 The construction of Dall is much simpler than that of venture which needs complex
machinery.
 It is much shorter in length which makes its insertion into flow line easier.
 Its perimeter pressure loss is only 5 % of measured pressure differential and thus it is
only half that due to a venturi.
 On the basis of maintenance and operational life, Dall and venturi are similar.
Dall Tube 22
 Advantages of Dall
- Shorter lay length.
- Lower unrecoverable pressure loss.
 Disadvantages of Dall
- More complex to manufacture.
- Sensitive to turbulence.
- Accuracy based on flow data.
Pitot Tube 23
 The pitot tube is a tube with an open end facing the incoming fluid stream.
 The Pitot tube measures flow based on differential pressure and is primarily used with
gas flows.
 The Pitot tube is a small tube that is directed into the flow stream.
 This measures the total pressure (dynamic and static combined). A second
measurement is required, being of static pressure.
 The difference between the two measurements gives a value for dynamic pressure.
 The flow rate, like other devices, is calculated from the square root of the pressure.
 In calculating the flow rate from the pressure, the calculation is dependent on such
factors as tube design and the location of the static tap.
 The Pitot-static probe incorporates the static holes in the tube system to eliminate this
parameter.
Pitot Tube 24
 The Pitot tube is also used to determine the velocity profile in a pipe.
 This is done by measuring points at various distances from the pipe wall to construct a
velocity profile.
 The Pitot tube is the primary device.
 It has the advantage over orifice meters of practically no pressure drop.
 Its usefulness is limited to clean gases and liquids as the sensing element is a small
orifice.
 Foreign materials tend to plug the openings in the tube, and the classical Pitot tube
senses impact pressure at one point only, thus decreasing accuracy.
 Assuming a steady, one – dimensional flow of an incompressible, frictionless fluid with
no heat loss for free stream velocity and applying Bernoulli’s principle between a point
in the free stream and another at the tip of the stagnation tube, we may write
𝑝𝑠 𝑡 𝑎 𝑡 2 𝑝𝑠𝑡 𝑎
+
𝑉𝜌 2 = 𝜌
Pitot Tube 25
2(𝑝𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑔 −
𝑉 𝑝𝑠 𝑡 𝑎 𝑡 ) 𝜌
=
1 2
∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 →→→→ 𝑉 ∆𝑝 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑔 −
2
∝ 𝑝𝑠 𝑡 𝑎 𝑡
 Pitot tubes develop a very low differential pressure, which can often be difficult to
measure with the secondary element.
 Also the accuracy of the device is dependent on the velocity profile of the fluid.
 The velocity profile is also affected by turbulence in the flow stream.
Pitot Tube 26
 Advantages of Pitot tube
- Low cost.
- Low permanent pressure loss.
- Ease of installation into existing systems.
 Disadvantages of Pitot tube
- Low accuracy.
- Low Rangeability.
- Requires clean liquid, gas or vapour as holes are easily clogged.
Annubar Tube 27
 An annubar is very similar to a pitot tube.
 The difference is that there is more than one hole into the pressure measuring
chambers.
 The pressure in the high pressure chamber represents an average of the velocity across
the pipe.
 Annubars are more accurate than pitot tubes as they are not as position sensitive to the
velocity to the velocity profile of the fluid.
Elbow Tap 28
 Elbow-Tap flow meter operates on the principle that when a fluid moves around a curved
path, the acceleration of the fluid creates centrifugal force.
 In operation, the centrifugal force results in a higher pressure on the outside of the elbow
than on the inside.
 Thus, a d/p is produced which is proportional to the square of the flow through the elbow.
 A pipe elbow can be used as a primary device.
 Elbow taps have an advantage in that most piping systems have elbows that can be used.
 In applications where cost is a factor and additional pressure loss from an orifice plate is
not permitted, the elbow meter is a viable differential pressure device.
 If an existing elbow is used then no additional pressure drop occurs and the expense
involved is minimal.
 They can also be produced in-situ from an existing bend, and are typically formed by two
tapings drilled at an angle of 45o through the bend.
 These tapings provide the high and low pressure tapping points respectively.
Elbow Tap 29
 Tappings at 22.5° have shown to provide more stable and reliable readings and are less
affected by upstream piping.
 However 45° tapings are more suited to bi-directional flow measurement.
 Velocity, pressure and elevation above the datum level for pressure taps on the inside
and outside surfaces of a 90° elbow can be related like
𝑣2 𝑃0
𝐶𝑘 = 𝑃 + 𝑍0 − − 𝑍𝑖
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑖 𝜌𝑔
𝑍𝑖 and 𝑍 𝑜are the lowest and highest points of tapping
respectively.
 The volume flow𝐴rate is expressed as
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑃 + 𝑍0 − − 𝑍𝑖 ) = 𝐶. 𝐴 2𝑔( + 𝑍0 − −
𝐶𝑘 𝜌𝑔𝑖 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
2𝑔( 𝑍𝑖)
𝜌𝑔
The value of C ranges from 0.56 to 0.88 and A is the area of cross – section of the pipe
Elbow Tap 30
 Advantages of Elbow
 - Simplified installation.
 - Inexpensive.
 Disadvantages of Elbow
 - Low accuracy
Open Channel Meters – Fall under Differential Flow meters 31
 The "open channel" refers to any conduit in which liquid flows with a free surface.
 Included are tunnels, non-pressurized sewers, partially filled pipes, canals, streams, and
rivers.
 Of the many techniques available for monitoring open-channel flows, depth-related
methods are the most common.
 These techniques presume that the instantaneous flow rate may be determined from a
measurement of the water depth, or head.
 Weirs and flumes are the oldest and most widely used primary devices for measuring
open-channel flows.
Weir 32
 The flow rate over a weir is a function of the weir geometry and of the weir head (the
weir head is defined as the vertical distance between the weir crest and the liquid
surface in the undisturbed region of the upstream flow).
 Weirs are variable head, variable area flow meters employed for measuring large
volumes of liquids in open channels.
 The device operates on the principle that if a restriction of specified shape and form is
introduced in flow path, a rise in the upstream liquid occurs which is a function of the
flow rate through the restriction.
 Weirs operate on the principle that an obstruction in a channel will cause water to back
up, creating a high level (head) behind the barrier.
 The head is a function of flow velocity, and, therefore, the flow rate through the device.
Weirs consist of vertical plates with sharp crests.
 The top of the plate can be straight or notched. Weirs are classified in accordance with
the shape of the notch. The basic types are V-notch, rectangular, and trapezoidal.
Weir 33
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at undisturbed region of upstream flow and at the crest
of the weir, we get
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝐻 = 𝐻−𝑦
2𝑔
+ +
 2𝑔
Where𝑉1and𝑉2 are theupstreamflowand flowatthecrest respectively
𝑉12
𝑉2 2𝑔(ℎ + )
= 2𝑔
 If 𝑉1 is small compared to 𝑉2 , then
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 2𝑔𝑦,
=
𝑦 = depth from the top surface of water level.
Weir 34
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 2𝑔𝑦𝐿𝑊 𝑑𝑦
=
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔𝑦 𝐿_𝑊
𝑑𝑦,
 𝐶𝑑 is the coefficient of discharge valuing between 0.57 and 0.64
𝐿𝑊 is the actual crest length 𝐻
 2 3
𝑄𝑎 𝑐 𝑡 𝑢 𝑎 𝑙 = 2𝑔𝑦 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐿𝑊 2𝑔(𝐻) 2
0 3
𝐶𝑑 𝐿𝑊
 For rectangular weir,
2 3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 (𝐿𝑊 −0.2𝐻) 2𝑔(𝐻)
3 2
 For triangular weir,
8 𝜃 5
𝑄= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑔(𝐻)
15 2 2
Flume 35
 Flumes are generally used when head loss must be kept to a minimum, or if the
flowing liquid contains large amounts of suspended solids.
 Flumes are to open channels what venturi tubes are to closed pipes. Popular flumes are
the Parshall and Palmer-Bowlus designs.
 The Parshall flume consists of a converging upstream section, a throat, and a diverging
downstream section.
 Flume walls are vertical and the floor of the throat is inclined downward.
 Head loss through Parshall flumes is lower than for other types of open-channel flow
measuring devices.
 High flow velocities help make the flume self-cleaning. Flow can be measured
accurately under a wide range of conditions.
Flume 36
 Palmer-Bowlus flumes have a trapezoidal throat of uniform cross section and a length
about equal to the diameter of the pipe in which it is installed.
 It is comparable to a Parshall flume in accuracy and in ability to pass debris without
cleaning.
 A principal advantage is the comparative ease with which it can be installed in existing
circular conduits, because a rectangular approach section is not required.
 Discharge through weirs and flumes is a function of level, so level measurement
techniques must be used with the equipment to determine flow rates.
 Staff gages and float-operated units are the simplest devices used for this purpose.
 Various electronic sensing, totalizing, and recording systems are also available.
Flume 37
References: 38

 Chapter 11: Flow Measurement, “Industrial Instrumentation and

Control” by S K Singh. Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition. 2009, New
Delhi. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-026222-5.
 Chapter 12: Flow Measurement, “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Analysis”. 2nd Edition, B C Nakra, K K Chaudhry, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi, 2005. ISBN: 0-07-048296-9.
 Chapter 7: Flowmeter, “Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation”, 1st
Edition, Alok Barua, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2011. ISBN:
978-81-265-2882-0.
 Chapter 5: Flow Measurement, “Principles of Industrial
Instrumentation”, 2nd Edition. D. Patranabis, Tata McGaw-Hill, New
Delhi, 2004. ISBN: 0-07-462334-6.