θφγδ

Solar Energy

Dr. Sushil Kumar Rathore,

Mechanical Engg. Department,
NIT Rourkela
 Introduction
All substances, solids, liquids and gases, at temperatures above absolute
zero, emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Heat transfer by radiation is distinguished from the heat transfer by

other means; such as conduction and convection, by its velocity of
propagation, which, in vacuum is independent of frequency and has the
value of 2.997925 X 108 m/s, and by the fact that no intervening
medium is required for its transmission.

Fig.: Electromagnetic spectrum according to wavelength

 Fig.: Atmospheric Window of the wavelengths that enter our atmosphere
Ref. https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/RadiationTypes

Our atmosphere is transparent to radio waves, visible light, and some infrared and UV
radiation.
 The SUN
• The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of
1.39 X 109 m and is, on the average, 1.5 X 1011 m from the earth.

• The sun rotates on its axis about once every four weeks. However, it
does not rotate as a solid body; the equator takes about 27 days and
the polar regions take about 30 days for each rotation.

• The sun has as effective blackbody temperature of 5777 K. (The

effective blackbody temperature of 5777 K is the temperature of a
blackbody radiating the same amount of energy as does the sun.)

• Several fusion reactions have been suggested to supply the energy

radiated by the sun.

• The one considered the most important is a process in which hydrogen

(i.e. four protons) combines to form helium (i.e. one helium nucleus);
the mass of helium nucleus is less than that of the four protons, mass
having been lost in the reaction and converted to energy.
Fig.: The structure of the sun
• The radiation in the sun’s core is in the x-ray and gamma-ray parts of
the spectrum, with the wavelengths of the radiation increasing as the
temperature drops at larger radial distances.
• It is estimated that 90% of the energy is generated in the region of 0 to
0.23 R (where R is the radius the sun).
• At a distance 0.7 R from the center, the temperature has dropped to
about 130,000 K and the density has dropped to 70 kg/m3 .
• The zone from 0.7 to 1.0 R is known as the convective zone. Within this
zone temperature drops to about 5000 K and density at about
10−5 kg/m3 .
• The sun’s surface appears to be composed of granules (irregular
convection cells), with dimensions from 1000 to 3000 km and with cell
lifetime of a few minutes.
• Other features of the solar surface are small dark areas called pores,
which are of the same order of magnitude as the convective cells, and
larger dark areas called sunspots, which vary in size.
• The outer layer of the convective zone is called the photosphere. The
density is (about 10−4 that of air at sea level).

• The photosphere is the source of most solar radiation.

 Solar Constant
• The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance between
the sun and the earth varies by 1.7 %.

• At a distance of one astronomical unit, 1.495 X 1011 m, the mean

earth-sun distance, the sun subtends an angle of 32’.

• Solar constant: Solar constant, Gsc, is the energy from the sun, per unit
time, received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the radiation, at mean earth-sun distance, outside of
the atmosphere.

• The availability of very high altitude aircraft, balloons, and spacecraft

has permitted direct measurements of solar radiation outside most or
all of the earth’s atmosphere.

• Gsc =1367 W/m2 with an uncertainty of the order of 1%. (Based on

spacecraft measurements and measurements from 3 rocket flights)
The world radiation center has adopted this value.
Fig.: Sun earth relationships
 Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial radiation
In addition to the total energy in the solar spectrum (i.e. the solar constant),
it is useful to know the spectral distribution of this radiation, that is the
radiation that would be received in the absence of the atmosphere.

Fig.: The WRC standard spectral irradiance curve at mean earth-sun distance

• The spectral value first increases sharply with wavelength, passes

through a maximum at a wavelength of 0.48µm.
• 99% of the sun’s radiation is obtained up to a wavelength of 4µm.
 Variation of extraterrestrial radiation
Two sources of variation in extraterrestrial radiation must be considered.

The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the sun.

The earth revolves about the sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small
eccentricity. Consequently, the distance between the earth and the sun varies
a little through the year. Because of this variation, the extraterrestrial flux
also varies.

The value on any day can be calculated from the equation:

360𝑛
𝐺𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺𝑠𝑐 1 + 0.033 cos
365

Where n is the day of the year. 𝐺𝑜𝑛 is the extraterrestrial radiation, measured
on the plane normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year.

The extraterrestrial radiation flux varies ±3.3% over a year.

 Fig.: Variation of extraterrestrial solar radiation with time of year

Planck’s Law: Planck’s law states that the spectral emissive power of a black surface is given by
2𝜋𝐶1
𝐸𝑏λ =
𝐶
λ5 [exp 2 − 1]
λ𝑇
Where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants whose values are 0.596 X 10−16 W-m2 and 0.014387
m-K respectively. λ is the wavelength and T, the temperature of the black surface in K.

Stefan-Boltzmann law: 𝐸𝑏 = σ𝑇 4

Where σ is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

σ = 5.670 𝑋 10−8 W/m2 K 4 and T is the temperature of the surface in K.
 Definitions
Beam Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun without
having been scattered by the atmosphere. Beam radiation is also
referred to as direct radiation.

Diffuse radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.

In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from various

directions in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is, therefore,
said to be anisotropic in nature.

Total solar radiation: The sum of the beam and diffuse solar radiation.

Irradiance, W/ m2 : The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a

surface, per unit area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar
irradiance, with appropriate subscripts for beam, diffuse, or spectral
radiation.
Irradiation or radiant exposure, J/m2 : The incident energy per unit
area on a surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified
time, usually an hour or a day.
Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation.
The symbol H is used for insolation for a day.

The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or other period if
specified.)

The symbol H and I can represent beam, diffuse, or total and can be
on surfaces of any orientation.

Subscripts : o refers to radiation above the earth’s atmosphere,

referred to as extraterrestrial radiation; b and d refer to beam and
diffuse radiation; T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a
plane normal to the direction of propagation. If neither T nor n
appear, the radiation is on a horizontal plane.
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, W/ m2 : The rate at which radiant
energy leaves a surface, per unit area, by combined emission,
reflection, and transmission.

Emissive power or Radiant Self-Exitance, W/ m2 : The rate at which

radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area, by emission only.
 Solar radiation geometry
• Angle of incidence θ: The angle between the beam radiation on a
surface and the normal to that surface.

• Zenith Angle θ𝑍 : It is angle made by the sun’s rays with the normal to the
horizontal surface.

• Latitude φ: The latitude φ of a location is the angle made by the line

joining the location to the center of the earth with the equatorial plane.
By convention, latitude is measured as positive for the northern
hemisphere. It can vary from −900 to +900 .
• Longitude L : Longitude shows (your) location in an east or west direction,
relative to the Greenwich meridian.

• Places to the east of Greenwich have longitude angles up to 1800 east.

• Places to the west of Greenwich have longitude angles up to 1800 west.

• The polar axis about the earth rotation is represented by NOS.

• Consider a point C on the surface of the earth. A semicircle passing

through the place C and the poles is known as the meridian.

• The meridian which passes through the observatory at Greenwich, UK is

by international agreement, called the prime meridian.

• The prime meridian has zero longitude.

• The angle BOJ is the longitude of the place C.

• The coordinates of Greenwich are: 51° 28' 57.276" N, 0° 0' 27.572" W

 φ
L

Fig.: Figure to understand longitude

• Slope β: Slope β is the angle made by the plane surface with the
horizontal. It can vary from 0 to 1800 .

• Surface azimuth angle γ: It is the angle made in the horizontal plane

between the horizontal line due south and the projection of the normal
to the surface on the horizontal plane. It can vary from -1800 to +1800 .
The angle will be taken positive if the normal is east of south and
negative of west of south.
• Solar azimuth angle γ𝑠 : The angular displacement from south of
the projection of beam radiation on the horizontal plane. By
convention, the solar azimuth angle is taken to be positive if the
projection of the line of sight is east of south and negative if west
of south.

• Hour angle: The angular displacement of the sun, east or west of

the local meridian due to the rotation of the earth on its axis at
150 per hour, morning negative, afternoon positive . It is measured
with reference to solar noon based on LAT (local apparent time). It
also varies from −1800 to +1800 .

• Indian Standard Time:

Meridian passing through Allahabad (Mirzapur) at 82.50 east (of
Greenwich Meridian) longitude was picked as the central meridian for
India, corresponding to a single time zone for the country at 5 hours
and 30 minutes in advance of GMT.
• Declination δ: The declination is the angle made by the line joining
the centers of the sun and the earth with the projection of this line
on the equatorial plane.

• The declination angle varies from a maximum value of +23.450 on

June to a minimum value of −23.450 on December 21. It zero on
the two equinox days of March 21 and September 22.

• Cooper has given the following simple relation for calculating the
declination

360
δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin [ (284 + 𝑛)]
365
where n is the day of the year.
 φ

Fig.: Declination Fig.: Variation of declination over the year

Solar time (Local apparent time): In solar energy problems it is always
desirable to convert clock time into solar time.

Solar time is measured with respect to solar noon, which is the time
when the sun is crossing the observer’s meridian.

Solar time = Standard time ±𝟒(𝑳𝒔𝒕 − 𝑳𝒍𝒐𝒄 )+E

Where the second term arises due to the difference in observer’s

longitude and the longitude on which the local standard time is based;
the sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes.

The negative sign in the first correction is applicable for eastern

hemisphere, while the positive sign is applicable for the western
hemisphere.
India is situated in eastern hemisphere. So, negative sign will be taken.
E is the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day
through the year and is called the equation of time.

E=229.18(0.000075+0.001868 cosB - 0.032077 sinB - 0.014615 cos2B - 0.04089

sin2B)
360(n−1)
Where, B=
365

And n=day of the year, 1≤ n ≤ 365

Ref.: Iqbal M. 1983, An introduction to Solar Radiation, Academic Press, Canada

Note: Geographically Indian coordinates are “The country is
situated north of the equator between 8°4' (for mainland) to
37°6' north latitude and 68°7' to 97°25' east longitude.” So India
lies in the Northern and Eastern hemispheres.

Qus. 1: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding

to 1430 h (IST) at Mumbai (190 07′ N, 720 51′ E) on July 1. In
India, standard time is based on 82.500 E.
Relation between the angles:

cosθ = sinφ(sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosγ cosω sinβ)+cosφ(cosδ cos ω cos β-sinδ
cosγ sin β)+cos δ sinγ sin ω sin β ………………..(1)

Special case:
Vertical surface: 𝜷=𝟗𝟎𝟎 ,
cosθ = sinφ cosδ cosγ cos ω - cosφ sinδ cosγ + cosδ sinγ sin ω………..(2)

Horizontal Surface: 𝜷=𝟎𝟎 ,

cosθ= sinφ sinδ+ cosφ cosδ cosω ……………………………(3)
Note: The angle in this case is the zenith angle 𝜃 𝑧 .

Inclined surface facing due south, γ=𝟎𝟎 ,

cosθ = sinφ(sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosω sinβ)+cosφ(cosδ cos ω cos β-sinδ sin β)
cosθ=sinδ sin(φ- β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ- β) ……………………………(4)
Vertical surface due south 𝜷=𝟗𝟎𝟎 , γ=𝟎𝟎 ,
cosθ = sinφ cosδ cosω-cosφ sinδ …………………………………(5)

Inclined surface facing due north γ=𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

cosθ = sinδ sin(φ + β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ + β) …………………………………(6)

Braun and Mitchell have shown that:

cosθ = cosθz cos β + sinθz sinβ cos(γs − γ)
In order to use the above equation, it is necessary to calculate θ𝑧 and γ𝑠 .

θ𝑧 can be calculated from Eq. (3). γ𝑠 is obtained from the expression given
by Iqbal:

cosγ𝑠 = (cosθ𝑧 sinφ – sinδ)/(sinθ𝑧 cosφ)

 Numerical Problem
Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-
plate collector on May 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The collector
is located in New Delhi (280 35′ N, 770 12′ E). It is tilted at an angle of
360 with the horizontal and is pointing due south.
Air mass: The ratio of mass of atmosphere through which beam
radiation passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at
the zenith (i.e. directly overhead).
1
𝑚=
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑧

The radiation available on the surface of earth is less than the radiation
available outside the earth’s atmosphere. The reduction in intensity
depends on the atmospheric conditions (amount of dust particles,
water vapor, ozone content, cloudiness, etc.), and solar altitude.

The latter factor determines the length of atmosphere through which

the solar beam has to pass before reaching the earth’s surface. If the
altitude of the sun is small, the length traversed by the beam is long. On
the other hand, if the sun is at the zenith (overhead), the solar beam
traverse a vertical path (shortest path).
 Solstice and Equinox
The earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.50 with respect to its orbit around
the sun. In its orbital movement the earth keeps its axis oriented in the
same direction.

The tilted position of the earth, along the earth’s daily rotation and yearly
revolution, accounts for the varying distribution of solar radiation over the
earth’s surface, the changing length of hours of daylight and darkness,
and the changing of the seasons.

At the winter solstice (December 21), the north pole is inclined 23.50
away from the sun. All points on the earth’s surface of 66.50 north
latitude are in total darkness for 24 hours while all regions within 23.50 of
the south pole receives continuous sunlight.

At the time of the two equinoxes (March 21 and September 21, approx.),
both the poles are equidistant from the sun and all points on the earth’s
surface have 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
 Tropic of Cancer passes through eight Indian states..
1-Gujrat-Gandhinagar
2-Rajasthan-Banswara
3-Madhya Pradesh-Bhopal
4-Chhatisgarh-Ambikapur
5-Jharkhand-Ranchi
6-West Bengal-Durgapur
7-Tripura-Nutan Bazar
8-Mizoram-Sabual

Fig: Ref.: https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-states-in-India-that-faces-the-Tropic-of-Capricorn

 Estimation of monthly average daily global radiation
The first attempt at estimating solar radiation was due to Angstrom who
suggested that it could be related to the amount of sunshine by a simple
linear relation of the form:
𝐻𝑔 𝑆
= a + b( )
𝐻𝑐 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where,
𝐻𝑔 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface or
daily global horizontal irradiance at a location (kJ/m2 . day)
𝐻𝑐 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at
the same location on a clear day (kJ/m2 . day)

𝑆= monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at the location (h)
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine hours per day at
the location (h)
a,b = constants obtained by fitting data
Because of difficulties in deciding what constitutes a clear day, Page suggested that 𝐻𝑐
in the Equation be replaced by 𝐻0 , the monthly average of the daily extraterrestrial
radiation which would fall on a horizontal surface at the location under consideration.
𝐻𝑔 𝑆
= a + b( )
𝐻0 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

Values of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of measured values of

global solar radiation and sunshine duration of many cities in the world by Lof et al.

In the above computations, the quantity 𝐻0 is the mean of the value (𝐻0 ) for each day
of the month. 𝐻0 is obtained by integrating over the day length as follows:
360𝑛
𝐻0 =G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ‫ ׬‬cosθ dt
365
360n
H0 =G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ‫ ׬‬sinφ sin δ+cosφ cos δ cosω dt
365
180ω 15 t π
Now, t= (as ω = )
15π 180
Where t is in hours and ω is in radians.
180
Hence, dt= dω
15π
Table: Constants and b for many cities of the world
Table: Constants a and b for Indian cities (Ref. Modi and Sukhatme)
Substituting the values in Eqn.
12 360n +ω𝑠
H0 = G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ‫׬‬−ω sinφ sin δ+cosφ cos δ cosω dω
π 365 𝑠
24 360n
H0 = G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ω𝑠 sinφ sin δ+cosφ cos δ sinω𝑠
π 365

The calculation of 𝐻0 has been simplified by Klein, who has determined the
particular day in each month on which the extraterrestrial radiation is nearly
equal to the monthly mean value.

The date on which the value of H0 is equal to 𝐻0 are as follows:

January 17, February 16, March 16, April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17,
August 16, September 15, October 15, November 14 and December 10.
The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or sunset ω𝑠 on a horizontal
surface can be found from Eq. 3, if zenith angle is set equal to 900

cosθ𝑧 = sinφ sinδ+ cosφ cosδ cosω

cos ω𝑠 = - tanφ tanδ
ω𝑠 = cos −1 (−tanφ tanδ)

Since 150 of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, the corresponding

day length (in hours)
2 2
Smax = ωs = cos −1 (−tanφ tanδ)
15 15
Where ω𝑠 is in degrees.
Qus.: Estimate the monthly average daily global horizontal irradiance
at Vadodara (220 00′ N, 730 10′ E) during the month of March if the
average sunshine hours per day is 9.5.
Assume that the values of a and b for Ahmedabad are valid for
Vadodara. Based on Klein’s recommendation, 𝐻0 can be taken equal
to H0 on March 16.
Reference Books:
• Solar Energy by S. P. Sukhatme and J K Nayak, Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
• Solar Energy, Fundamentals and Applications by H P Garg and J
Prakash, First revised edition, McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited
• Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes by John A. Duffie and
William A. Beckman, Second Edition, A Wiley-Interscience
Publication, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• An introduction to Solar Radiation by M. Iqbal, Academic Press,
1983
• Page, J. K. 1961. The estimation of monthly mean values of daily
total short-wave radiation of vertical and inclined surfaces from
sunshine records for latitudes 400 N-400 S. Proc. UN Conf. New
Sources of Energy, 4:378.