Informal Fallacies

Fallacy
An Error in Reasoning

To find out a fallacy is to identify the ways (recognizable

patterns) in which one is tempted to reason
incorrectly.

Incorrect Reasoning: Premises of an argument fail to

support its Conclusion.
E.g., all sciences are materialistic, Karl Marx was a
materialist, therefore Karl Marx was scientific.
 Formal Fallacies & Informal Fallacies
Type of Incorrect Argument

Formal Fallacy: Defect recognized in the

form/structure of a deductive argument

Informal Fallacy: Defect due to the content of

the language used
“the pitfalls laid by language in the way of a thinker”
 Classification of Fallacies
Identifiable Common Features:
“fear, pity, or camaraderie, pejorative to author
(emotion)/ observational defects/dispositions-
superstition, mental laziness/linguistic carelessness.”
No indubitable Taxonomy of Fallacies
Therefore, working classification (somewhat arbitrary)

1. Fallacies of Relevance/Irrelevance
2. Fallacies of Defective Induction
3. Fallacies of Presumption
4. Fallacies of Ambiguity
Fallacies of Relevance/Irrelevance
1. The Appeal to the Populace (Argument ad
Populum)
2. The Appeal to Emotion (e.g. Pity – argument ad
misericordiam)
3. The Red Herring
4. The Straw Man
5. The Attack on the Person (Abusive/Circumstantial)
6. The Appeal to Force
7. Missing the Point
 The Appeal to the Populace (Argument ad
Populum)
Attempt to win popular assent to a conclusion
by arousing the feeling of the people—
mobilizing public sentiment—to excite
enthusiasm/stir emotions (Appeal to emotion)

Instead of providing convincing evidence and

rational justification if one resorts to unduly
invoking emotions, one commits a fallacy of
this kind.
 Patriotism & Advertisement
Many emotions are invoked and demands are pressed in
the name of Nation and most of them in some sense
seem justified. However, if the emotions are incited to
garner support on illogical grounds, then the appeal
becomes fallacious.
For example, if a party demands vote in the name of
religion, caste and region etc., it is not logically justified
because the voters are supposed to vote on the merits
of the candidate and the accidental facts like belonging
to a religion or caste etc. do not constitute any merits
which show the integrity and honesty of a candidate.
 ad Populum cont…

My party candidate is an accused person only,

others have given tickets to criminals.
There is a fallacy of bandwagon in the given example, because
instead of providing any rational justification for why the party
ticket is given to an accused person, the spoke person is
pointing out that others are also doing the same. His reason is
logically irrelevant to support his claim that giving ticket to a
tainted person is necessary. Though it is psychologically
appealing that a vicious person can very well overcome
another vicious, but it is not necessary. A virtuous person can
be a more potential candidate against the vicious ones.
 Argument ad Misericordiam (appeal to pity)

Latin misericordiam means “merciful heart”.

Mercy is a noble emotion and there is nothing
wrong to appeal to this virtue. But if an undue
appeal is made, then it becomes a fallacy.
For example, a law officer commits this fallacy if
he pleads for the leniency to his client, who
killed his parents, on the grounds that he is an
orphan.
 The Red Herring
Some distraction is deliberately introduced to
mislead or confuse to win the argument

Children are abused in New Delhi because there

is a paucity of affordable child-care facilities.
Here the scarcity of child-care facility (creche) is brought in to
take away the attention from the deteriorating law and order
situation in the national capital.
 The Straw Man Fallacy
Presenting an opponent’s position in a way easy to
refute (may be a variety of red herring)

Assumption: opponent’s position is understood in

its extremity

(a) Remarks by Mr. Mohan Bhagwat on reservation

(b) Taking any remark too literally (donkey/dog)
 Argument Against the person (ad
hominem)
• Argument Against the Person (abusive)
Mr. Lalu Yadav’s concern for corruption is not
acceptable since he himself is convicted on
corruption charges.

• Argument Against the Person (circumstantial)

Non-NET qualified students’ demand is not
legitimate because those protesting belong to
this category itself
 Appeal to Force (Argument ad Baculum)

Force or threat of force is pressed into service

instead of any rational justification

E.g. if you do not agree with my view, you have

to face the consequences—fundamentalists
 Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
Such mistake is likely to be made when one seeks to
refute another’s argument. Ignoratio elenchi is a
“mistaken refutation”…the refutation goes
haywire when the arguer fails to understand the
position in dispute.
E.g. Opposition says that the economic situation is
worsening because the prices of everything are
rising. Govt. says that economy is improving and
we are conducting raids on the hoarders to keep
the prices low… non sequitur
 Argument tu quoque
Child to parent: Your argument that I should stop
stealing candy from the corner store is no
good. You told me yourself just a week ago
that you, too, stole candy when you were a
kid.
 Point out the fallacy
• The Supreme Court on Wednesday, 4th Oct. 2017
expressed shock at an affidavit filed by Jammu and
Kashmir's top lawyers' body listing the accession of
Kashmir to India, “rigged” elections and the "catch-
and-kill" policy of security personnel as “historical
reasons” behind the street violence and protests in the
Valley.
• “We are slightly shocked at the affidavit filed by you.
How is it relevant for this special leave petition
(questioning the use of pellet guns in Kashmir)… this is
mysterious,” a Bench led by Chief Justice of India Dipak
Misra told the lawyers appearing for Jammu and
Kashmir High Court Bar Association.
 Fallacies of Defective Induction
• The Argument from Ignorance (ad
ignorantiam): x is true because it is not proven
to be false…apprehension towards any new
thing is likely to involve this fallacy.
• Appeal to Inappropriate Authority (argument
ad verecundiam): a conclusion is accepted to
be true when an expert endorses. Obvious
fallacy is seen where a non-experts advice is
used to accept a conclusion.
 FDI cont…
• False Cause (argument non causa pro causa)
when a non-cause is accepted as the cause of
something, such fallacy is committed (WMD
issue for UK)
post hoc ergo propter hoc: after this, therefore
because of this
Fallacy of the slippery slope: change in one will
lead to necessary change in the other…likely
(Collegium System Vs. NJAC)
 FDI cont…
• Hasty Generalization:
moving carelessly from short sample size to a
general claim (converse accident)

Varun, Vipin, Vikas, Vaibhav, Vishakha are the

students of SMVDU.
Their name begins with a letter which is in the
centre of SMVDU.
Therefore, SMVDU admits only those whose name
begin with V.
 Fallacies of Presumption
Fallacy due to tacit assumption which is
unwarranted, dubious or false
Fallacy of Accident:
Mistaken application of the general to special cases

Complex Question:
Deceitful device: have you stopped beating your
wife?
 FP cont…
• Begging the Question: (petitio principi)
When the conclusion of an argument is assumed
in any one of the premises
E.g. there is no such thing as knowledge which
cannot be practiced, for such knowledge is no
knowledge.
Religious texts contain the message of God, they
say that God exists, therefore we must accept
that God exists.
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
• Fallacy of Equivocation (due to more than one
literal meaning) MMS
• Fallacy of Amphiboly (fallacious due to
grammatical construction) X, along with his wife,
Y, donated his house for charity
• Fallacy of Accent (shift in the emphasis) We
should not speak ill of our friends… terms and conditions apply

• Fallacy of Composition (features of parts to the whole)

• Fallacy of Division (reverse of the fallacy of
composition)
 Mill’s Method
Cause and Effect Relationship

The Method of Agreement

The Method of Disagreement/Difference
The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference
The Method of Residues
The Method of Concomitant Variation