G

Chapter 3: Introduction to SQL
Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
Outline
 Overview of The SQL Query Language

 SQL Data Definition
 Basic Query Structure of SQL Queries
 Additional Basic Operations
 Set Operations
 Null Values
 Aggregate Functions
 Nested Subqueries
 Modification of the Database
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 3.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History
 IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project at the IBM

San Jose Research Laboratory
 Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
 ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
• SQL-86
• SQL-89
• SQL-92
• SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
• SQL:2003
 Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92 features, plus varying
feature sets from later standards and special proprietary features.
• Not all examples here may work on your particular system.
SQL Parts
 DML -- provides the ability to query information from the database and to
insert tuples into, delete tuples from, and modify tuples in the database.
 DDL – Provides commands for:
• Integrity – specifying integrity constraints.
• View definition -- defining views.
• Authorization – specifying access rights to relations and views
 Transaction control –includes commands for specifying the beginning and
ending of transactions.
 Embedded SQL and dynamic SQL -- define how SQL statements can
be embedded within general-purpose programming languages.
Data Definition Language
The SQL data-definition language (DDL) allows the specification of

information about relations, including:
 The schema for each relation.
 The type of values associated with each attribute.
 The Integrity constraints
 The set of indices to be maintained for each relation.
 Security and authorization information for each relation.
 The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.
Domain Types in SQL
 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.

 varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified
maximum length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
 smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
domain type).
 numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p
digits, with d digits to the right of decimal point. (ex., numeric(3,1),
allows 44.5 to be stores exactly, but not 444.5 or 0.32)
 real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating
point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least
n digits.
 More are covered in Chapter 4.
Create Table Construct
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:

create table r
(A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn ,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
• r is the name of the relation
• Each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
• Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
 Example:
create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
Integrity Constraints in Create Table
 Types of integrity constraints

• primary key (A1, ..., An )
• foreign key (Am, ..., An ) references r
• not null
 SQL prevents any update to the database that violates an integrity
constraint.
 Example:
create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20) not null,
salary numeric(8,2),
primary key (ID),
foreign key (dept_name) references department);
And a Few More Relation Definitions
 create table student (

ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20) not null,
tot_cred numeric(3,0),
primary key (ID),
 create table takes (

ID varchar(5),
course_id varchar(8),
sec_id varchar(8),
semester varchar(6),
year numeric(4,0),
grade varchar(2),
primary key (ID, course_id, sec_id, semester, year) ,
foreign key (ID) references student,
foreign key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year) references section);
And more still
 create table course (

course_id varchar(8),
title varchar(50),
credits numeric(2,0),
primary key (course_id),
Updates to tables
 Insert
• insert into instructor values ('10211', 'Smith', 'Biology', 66000);
 Delete
• Remove all tuples from the student relation
 delete from student
 Drop Table
• drop table r
 Alter
• alter table r add A D
 Where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and
D is the domain of A.
 All exiting tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for
the new attribute.
• alter table r drop A
 Where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
 Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases.
Basic Query Structure
 A typical SQL query has the form:
select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
• Ai represents an attribute
• ri represents a relation
• P is a predicate.
 The result of an SQL query is a relation.
The select Clause
 The select clause lists the attributes desired in the result of a query
• Corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
 Example: find the names of all instructors:
select name
from instructor
 NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or
lower-case letters.)
• E.g., Name ≡ NAME ≡ name
• Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font.
The select Clause (Cont.)
 SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.

 To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after
select.
 Find the department names of all instructors, and remove duplicates
select distinct dept_name
from instructor
 The keyword all specifies that duplicates should not be removed.
select all dept_name
from instructor
 An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”

select *
from instructor
 An attribute can be a literal with no from clause
select '437'
• Results is a table with one column and a single row with value “437”
• Can give the column a name using:
select '437' as FOO
 An attribute can be a literal with from clause
select 'A'
from instructor
• Result is a table with one column and N rows (number of tuples in
the instructors table), each row with value “A”
 The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the

operation, +, –, , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of
tuples.
• The query:
select ID, name, salary/12
from instructor
would return a relation that is the same as the instructor relation,
except that the value of the attribute salary is divided by 12.
• Can rename “salary/12” using the as clause:
select ID, name, salary/12 as monthly_salary
The where Clause
 The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
• Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra.
 To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.'
 SQL allows the use of the logical connectives and, or, and not
 The operands of the logical connectives can be expressions involving the
comparison operators <, <=, >, >=, =, and <>.
 Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions
 To find all instructors in “Comp. Sci.” dept with salary > 80000
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.' and salary > 80000
The from Clause
 The from clause lists the relations involved in the query

• Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational
algebra.
 Find the Cartesian product instructor X teaches
select 
from instructor, teaches
• Generates every possible instructor – teaches pair, with all attributes
from both relations.
• For common attributes (e.g., ID), the attributes in the resulting table
are renamed using the relation name (e.g., instructor.ID)
 Cartesian product not very useful directly, but useful combined with
where-clause condition (selection operation in relational algebra).
Examples
 Find the names of all instructors who have taught some course and the
course_id
• select name, course_id
from instructor , teaches
where instructor.ID = teaches.ID
 Find the names of all instructors in the Art department who have taught
some course and the course_id
from instructor , teaches
where instructor.ID = teaches.ID and instructor. dept_name = 'Art'
The Rename Operation
 The SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
 Find the names of all instructors who have a higher salary than
some instructor in 'Comp. Sci'.
• select distinct T.name
from instructor as T, instructor as S
where T.salary > S.salary and S.dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.’
 Keyword as is optional and may be omitted

instructor as T ≡ instructor T
Self Join Example
 Relation emp-super
 Find the supervisor of “Bob”

 Find the supervisor of the supervisor of “Bob”
 Can you find ALL the supervisors (direct and indirect) of “Bob”?
String Operations
 SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character

strings. The operator like uses patterns that are described using two
special characters:
• percent ( % ). The % character matches any substring.
• underscore ( _ ). The _ character matches any character.
 Find the names of all instructors whose name includes the substring “dar”.
select name
from instructor
where name like '%dar%'
 Match the string “100%”
like '100 \%' escape '\'
in that above we use backslash (\) as the escape character.
String Operations (Cont.)
 Patterns are case sensitive.

 Pattern matching examples:
• 'Intro%' matches any string beginning with “Intro”.
• '%Comp%' matches any string containing “Comp” as a substring.
• '_ _ _' matches any string of exactly three characters.
• '_ _ _ %' matches any string of at least three characters.
 SQL supports a variety of string operations such as

• Concatenation (using “||”)
• Converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
• Finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Ordering the Display of Tuples
 List in alphabetic order the names of all instructors

select distinct name
from instructor
order by name
 We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order,
for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
• Example: order by name desc
 Can sort on multiple attributes
• Example: order by dept_name, name
Where Clause Predicates
 SQL includes a between comparison operator

 Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary between $90,000
and $100,000 (that is,  $90,000 and  $100,000)
• select name
from instructor
where salary between 90000 and 100000
 Tuple comparison
from instructor, teaches
where (instructor.ID, dept_name) = (teaches.ID, 'Biology');
Set Operations
 Find courses that ran in Fall 2017 or in Spring 2018

(select course_id from section where sem = 'Fall' and year = 2017)
union
(select course_id from section where sem = 'Spring' and year = 2018)
 Find courses that ran in Fall 2017 and in Spring 2018
intersect
 Find courses that ran in Fall 2017 but not in Spring 2018
except
Set Operations (Cont.)
 Set operations union, intersect, and except

• Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates
 To retain all duplicates use the
• union all,
• intersect all
• except all.
Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of
their attributes
 The value null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
• Example: 5 + null returns null
 The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.
• Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null.
select name
from instructor
where salary is null
 The predicate is not null succeeds if the value on which it is applied is
not null.
Null Values (Cont.)
 SQL treats as unknown the result of any comparison involving a null

value (other than predicates is null and is not null).
• Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
 The predicate in a where clause can involve Boolean operations (and,
or, not); thus, the definitions of the Boolean operations need to be
extended to deal with the value unknown.
• and : (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
• or: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
 Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to
unknown
Examples
 Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary value null
• select name
from instructor
where salary is null
 Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary value greater
than100000 is unknown
• select name
from instructor
where salary > 100000 is unknown
Aggregate Functions
 These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of a

relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate Functions Examples
 Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science department

• select avg (salary)
from instructor
where dept_name= 'Comp. Sci.';
 Find the total number of instructors who teach a course in the Spring 2018
semester
• select count (distinct ID)
from teaches
where semester = 'Spring' and year = 2018;
 Find the number of tuples in the course relation
• select count (*)
from course;
Aggregate Functions Examples
 Find the minimum salary of instructors in the Computer Science

department
• select min (salary)
from instructor
where dept_name= 'Comp. Sci.’;
 Can be done without the aggregation operators in SQL. How?
Aggregate Functions – Group By
 Find the average salary of instructors in each department
• select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
group by dept_name;
Aggregation (Cont.)
 Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must appear in

group by list
• /* erroneous query */
select dept_name, ID, avg (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;
Aggregate Functions – Having Clause
 Find the names and average salaries of all departments whose average
salary is greater than 42000
select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
group by dept_name
having avg (salary) > 42000;
 Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the formation of
groups whereas predicates in the where clause are applied before forming
groups
Nested Subqueries
 SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries. A subquery is
a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query.
 The nesting can be done in the following SQL query
select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
as follows:
• From clause: ri can be replaced by any valid subquery
• Where clause: P can be replaced with an expression of the form:
B <operation> (subquery)
B is an attribute and <operation> to be defined later.
• Select clause:
Ai can be replaced be a subquery that generates a single value.
Set Membership
Set Membership (“in” ) Clause
 Find courses offered in Fall 2017 and in Spring 2018

select distinct course_id
from section
where semester = 'Fall' and year= 2017 and
course_id in (select course_id
from section
where semester = 'Spring' and year= 2018);
 Find courses offered in Fall 2017 but not in Spring 2018

select distinct course_id
from section
where semester = 'Fall' and year= 2017 and
course_id not in (select course_id
from section
where semester = 'Spring' and year= 2018);
Set Membership (Cont.)
 Name all instructors whose name is neither “Mozart” nor Einstein”

select distinct name
from instructor
where name not in ('Mozart', 'Einstein')
 Find the total number of (distinct) students who have taken course
sections taught by the instructor with ID 10101
select count (distinct ID)

from takes
where (course_id, sec_id, semester, year) in
(select course_id, sec_id, semester, year
from teaches
where teaches.ID= 10101);
 Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner.

The formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features
Set Comparison
Set Comparison – “some” Clause
 Find names of instructors with salary greater than that of some (at least
one) instructor in the Biology department.
select distinct T.name
from instructor as T, instructor as S
where T.salary > S.salary and S.dept name = 'Biology';
 Same query using > some clause
select name
from instructor
where salary > some (select salary
from instructor
where dept name = 'Biology');
Definition of “some” Clause
 F <comp> some r t  r such that (F <comp> t )

Where <comp> can be:     
0
(5 < some 5 ) = true
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
6
0
(5 < some 5 ) = false
0
(5 = some 5 ) = true
0
(5  some 5 ) = true (since 0  5)
(= some)  in
However, ( some)  not in
Set Comparison – “all” Clause
 Find the names of all instructors whose salary is greater than the salary of
all instructors in the Biology department.
select name
from instructor
where salary > all (select salary
from instructor
where dept name = 'Biology');
Definition of “all” Clause
 F <comp> all r t  r (F <comp> t)
0
(5 < all 5 ) = false
6
6
(5 < all 10 ) = true
4
(5 = all 5 ) = false
4
(5  all 6 ) = true (since 5  4 and 5  6)
( all)  not in
However, (= all)  in
Test for Empty Relations
 The exists construct returns the value true if the argument subquery is
nonempty.
 exists r  r  Ø
 not exists r  r = Ø
Use of “exists” Clause
 Yet another way of specifying the query “Find all courses taught in both the
Fall 2017 semester and in the Spring 2018 semester”
select course_id
from section as S
where semester = 'Fall' and year = 2017 and
exists (select *
from section as T
where semester = 'Spring' and year= 2018
and S.course_id = T.course_id);
 Correlation name – variable S in the outer query

 Correlated subquery – the inner query
Use of “not exists” Clause
 Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology
department.
select distinct S.ID, S.name
from student as S
where not exists ( (select course_id
from course
where dept_name = 'Biology')
except
(select T.course_id
from takes as T
where S.ID = T.ID));
• First nested query lists all courses offered in Biology

• Second nested query lists all courses a particular student took
 Note that X – Y = Ø  X Y
 Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants
Test for Absence of Duplicate Tuples
 The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any duplicate tuples
in its result.
 The unique construct evaluates to “true” if a given subquery contains no
duplicates
 Find all courses that were offered at most once in 2017
select T.course_id
from course as T
where unique ( select R.course_id
from section as R
where T.course_id= R.course_id
and R.year = 2017);
• Can be done in simpler way. How?
Subqueries in the From Clause
Subqueries in the Form Clause
 SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause

 Find the average instructors’ salaries of those departments where the
average salary is greater than $42,000.”
select dept_name, avg_salary
from ( select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
group by dept_name)
where avg_salary > 42000;
 Note that we do not need to use the having clause
 Another way to write above query
select dept_name, avg_salary
from ( select dept_name, avg (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name)
as dept_avg (dept_name, avg_salary)
where avg_salary > 42000;
With Clause
 The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary relation whose

definition is available only to the query in which the with clause occurs.
 Find all departments with the maximum budget
with max_budget (value) as
(select max(budget)
from department)
select department.name
from department, max_budget
where department.budget = max_budget.value;
Complex Queries using With Clause
 Find all departments where the total salary is greater than the average of
the total salary at all departments
with dept _total (dept_name, value) as

(select dept_name, sum(salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name),
dept_total_avg(value) as
(select avg(value)
from dept_total)
select dept_name
from dept_total, dept_total_avg
where dept_total.value > dept_total_avg.value;
Scalar Subquery
 Scalar subquery is one which is used where a single value is expected

 List all departments along with the number of instructors in each
department
select dept_name,
( select count (*)
from instructor
where department.dept_name = instructor.dept_name)
as num_instructors
from department;
 Runtime error if subquery returns more than one result tuple
Modification of the Database
 Deletion of tuples from a given relation.

 Insertion of new tuples into a given relation
 Updating of values in some tuples in a given relation
Deletion
 Delete all instructors

delete from instructor
 Delete all instructors from the Finance department

where dept_name= 'Finance’;
 Delete all tuples in the instructor relation for those instructors associated
with a department located in the Watson building.
where dept name in (select dept name
from department
where building = 'Watson');
Deletion (Cont.)
 Delete all instructors whose salary is less than the average salary of
instructors

where salary < (select avg (salary)
from instructor);
• Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average salary changes

• Solution used in SQL:
1. First, compute avg (salary) and find all tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without recomputing avg or
retesting the tuples)
Insertion
 Add a new tuple to course

insert into course
values ('CS-437', 'Database Systems', 'Comp. Sci.', 4);
 or equivalently
insert into course (course_id, title, dept_name, credits)
values ('CS-437', 'Database Systems', 'Comp. Sci.', 4);
 Add a new tuple to student with tot_creds set to null

insert into student
values ('3003', 'Green', 'Finance', null);
Insertion (Cont.)
 Make each student in the Music department who has earned more than
144 credit hours an instructor in the Music department with a salary of
$18,000.
insert into instructor
select ID, name, dept_name, 18000
from student
where dept_name = 'Music' and total_cred > 144;
 The select from where statement is evaluated fully before any of its
results are inserted into the relation.
Otherwise queries like
insert into table1 select * from table1
would cause problem
Updates
 Give a 5% salary raise to all instructors

update instructor
set salary = salary * 1.05
 Give a 5% salary raise to those instructors who Eran less than 70000
update instructor
where salary < 70000;
 Give a 5% salary raise to instructors whose salary is less than average
update instructor
where salary < (select avg (salary)
from instructor);
Updates (Cont.)
 Increase salaries of instructors whose salary is over $100,000 by 3%, and

all others by a 5%
• Write two update statements:
update instructor
where salary > 100000;
update instructor
where salary <= 100000;
• The order is important
• Can be done better using the case statement (next slide)
Case Statement for Conditional Updates
 Same query as before but with case statement

update instructor
set salary = case
when salary <= 100000 then salary * 1.05
else salary * 1.03
end
Updates with Scalar Subqueries
 Recompute and update tot_creds value for all students

update student S
set tot_cred = (select sum(credits)
from takes, course
where takes.course_id = course.course_id and
S.ID= takes.ID.and
takes.grade <> 'F' and
takes.grade is not null);
 Sets tot_creds to null for students who have not taken any course
 Instead of sum(credits), use:
case
when sum(credits) is not null then sum(credits)
else 0
end
End of Chapter 3

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Chapter 3: Introduction to SQL

Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.

 Overview of The SQL Query Language

 IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project at the IBM

The SQL data-definition language (DDL) allows the specification of

 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.

 An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:

 Types of integrity constraints

 create table student (

 create table takes (

 create table course (

 A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2, ..., An

 SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.

 An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”

 The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the

 The from clause lists the relations involved in the query

 Keyword as is optional and may be omitted

 Find the supervisor of “Bob”

 SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character

 Patterns are case sensitive.

 SQL supports a variety of string operations such as

 List in alphabetic order the names of all instructors

 SQL includes a between comparison operator

 Find courses that ran in Fall 2017 or in Spring 2018

 Set operations union, intersect, and except

 SQL treats as unknown the result of any comparison involving a null

 These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of a

 Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science department

 Find the minimum salary of instructors in the Computer Science

 Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must appear in

select A1, A2, ..., An

 Find courses offered in Fall 2017 and in Spring 2018

 Find courses offered in Fall 2017 but not in Spring 2018

 Name all instructors whose name is neither “Mozart” nor Einstein”

select count (distinct ID)

 Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner.

 Same query using > some clause

 F <comp> some r t  r such that (F <comp> t )

 F <comp> all r t  r (F <comp> t)

 Correlation name – variable S in the outer query

• First nested query lists all courses offered in Biology

 SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause

 The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary relation whose

with dept _total (dept_name, value) as

 Scalar subquery is one which is used where a single value is expected

 Deletion of tuples from a given relation.

 Delete all instructors

 Delete all instructors from the Finance department

delete from instructor

• Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average salary changes

 Add a new tuple to course

 Add a new tuple to student with tot_creds set to null

 Give a 5% salary raise to all instructors

 Increase salaries of instructors whose salary is over $100,000 by 3%, and

 Same query as before but with case statement

 Recompute and update tot_creds value for all students

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