Kinetic Molecular Model of

Liquids and Solids

Activity
• Roleplay of the three physical states – solid, liquid, gas.
• Act as particles (or molecules ) and present their behavior and
positions relative to each other in the solid, liquid and gaseous
state.
• 3 minutes to discuss how to act the assigned state, and 2 minutes to
act it.
• One member of the group will explain the act.
• Other groups to make comments on the group acts.
Kinetic Molecular Theory

• 1. All matter is made of tiny particles.

• 2. These particles are in constant motion.
• 3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature.
Increased temperature means greater speed.
• 4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between
particles, in the freedom of motion of particles, and in the
extent to which the particles interact.
• 1. Compare the properties of gases, liquids, and solids in terms of
distances and arrangement of their molecules.
• a. Compare the distances among molecules in the gas, liquid and
solid and rank the phases in increasing distance between particles.
• b. Describe the characteristic movement of the particles of gas,
liquid and solid.
• c. How are the molecules of gas, liquid and solid arranged?
Properties of Matter
Gas Liquid Solid
Volume/Shape Assumes volume Fixed volume; Fixed volume; fixed
and assumes shape (regardless
shape of container shape of occupied of size
part of and shape of
container. container
Density low high high
Compressibility Easy to compress Cannot be Cannot be
appreciably appreciably
compressed compressed
Motion of Random, fast, Random, medium Vibration in place
Molecules cover speed,
large distances limited distances
Intermolecular Forces
• Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act between
molecules or particles in the solid or liquid states.
• The stronger the intermolecular forces to be broken, the larger the
amount of energy needed to break them, hence, the higher the
melting point for solid to liquid transformation, and boiling point
for liquid to gas transformation.
 Types of Intermolecular Forces
1. Hydrogen Bond (strongest)
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction
between they hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. IT IS NOT A BOND.
A H…B or A H…A
A & B are N, O, or F

11.2
 Types of Intermolecular Forces

2. Ion-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule

Ion-Dipole Interaction

11.2
11.2
3. Dipole-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between polar molecules

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

11.2
4. Dispersion Forces –London Dispersion forces (weakest)

Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary

dipoles induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

11.2
Dispersion
forces usually
increase with
molar mass.

11.2
• A molecule will be nonpolar if:
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are the same
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are symmetrically arranged
around the central atom
• The terminal atoms (or groups) have the same charges
• Example: CO2
• A molecule will be polar if:
• One or more terminal atoms differ from each other.
• At least one polar bond is present.
• The terminal atoms are not symmetrically arranged
• The molecule has one slightly positive end and one slightly negative
end.
• Example: H2O
Determine whether the molecule is polar or nonpolar

• CH4: • SO3:
• nonpolar molecule • nonpolar molecule
• NH3: • SO2:
• polar molecule • polar molecule
• H2O:
• polar molecule
• CH3Cl: • BH3:
• polar molecule • nonpolar molecule
• HCN: • PCl3:
• polar molecule • polar molecule
• CH2O:
• polar molecule
 What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist
between each of the following molecules?

HBr
HBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces.

CH4
CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.

SO2
SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces
Determine the strongest type of intermolecular
force present in the following molecules:

• 1. CH3OH • 6. PF3
• 2. SCl4 • 7. HF
• 3. SCl6 • 8. SiF4
• 4. H2S • 9. CH3NH2
• 5. BrF • 10. LiF in H2O
Give all types of IMFs that would occur in each
of the following:

• A. CH3CF3
• B. CCl4
• C. SO2
• D. PCl5
• E. HBr
• F. O2
• G. CH3OH
Properties of Liquids and
Intermolecular Forces
Infer the Topic Protocol
FOCUS QUESTIONS

• What are the properties of liquids?

• How do intermolecular forces affect the properties of liquids?
• What are the properties of water and how do they relate to its
structure and intermolecular forces?
• Surface tension is the measure of the elastic force in the surface of
a liquid. It is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase
the surface of a liquid by a unit area.
• Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces also have high
surface tension.
• Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes
or be drawn into small openings such as those between grains of a
rock.
• Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:
• Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like
molecules (the liquid molecules).
• Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as
those in water and in the particles that make up the glass
tube).
• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
• The greater the viscosity, the slower the liquid flows.
• Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher
viscosities than those that have weak intermolecular forces.
• Viscosity decreases as temperature increases: hot molasses flows
much faster than cold molasses.
• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium
with a liquid in a closed container at a given temperature.
• The greater the number of gaseous particles, the greater the
pressure exerted by the gas.
• As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure of water also
increases.
• The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the lower the
vapor pressure of a liquid.
• Relate Vapor Pressure to Strength of Intermolecular Forces
• The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the symbol
for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard
condition.
• If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to
free the molecules from the liquid phase and the heat of
vaporization will be high.
• The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
• The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the
liquid converts to a gas when the external pressure is 1
atm. The normal boiling point of water is 100oC.
WATER: A VERY UNUSUAL LIQUID
• The Unique Properties of Water:
• • Water is a good solvent.
• A unique property of water is its ability to dissolve a large variety of
chemical substances. It dissolves salts and other ionic compounds, as
well as polar covalent compounds such as alcohols and organic
substances that are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
• Water has a high specific heat.
• Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1oC.
• The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-oC), one
of the highest for many liquids.
• Water can absorb a large amount of heat even if its temperature
rises only slightly.
• To raise the temperature of water, the intermolecular hydrogen
bonds should break. The converse is also true; water can give off
much heat with only a slight decrease in its temperature. This
allows large bodies of water to help moderate the temperature on
earth.
• The boiling point of water is unusually high.
• The strong intermolecular forces in water allow it to be a
liquid at a large range of temperatures.
• Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid water.
• Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water are actually
farther apart than they are in liquid water.
• When solid water forms, the hydrogen bonds result in a very open
structure with unoccupied spaces, causing the solid to occupy a
larger volume than the liquid. This makes ice less dense than liquid
water, causing ice to float on water.
Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and
Solids;
Solids and their Properties
FOCUS QUESTIONS
• A. What are the two general types of solids? What features can be
used to distinguish a crystalline solid from an amorphous solid?
• B. What is the distinguishing feature of crystalline solids? How are
the structures of crystals determined?
• C. What are the four types of crystals? What form of unit particles
makes up each type of crystal? What forces bind the unit particles
of each type of crystal? What are the properties of each type of
crystal?
Types of Solids

• Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or

lattices.
• Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl),
copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite, and sugar
(C12H22O11).
• The ordered arrangement of their units maximizes the space they
occupy and are essentially incompressible.
• Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles.
• Examples of amorphous solids are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber.
They are considered super-cooled liquids where molecules are
arranged in a random manner similar to the liquid state.
Crystalline and amorphous quartz
Types of Crystals
• 1. METALLIC CRYSTALS
• 2. IONIC CRYSTALS
• 3. MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
• 4. COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS
Phase Changes
• Phase changes are transformations of matter from one physical
state to another.
• They occur when energy (usually in the form of heat) is added or
removed from a substance.
• Endothermic processes: melting, vaporization, and sublimation
• Exothermic processes: condensation, deposition, and freezing
• The melting (or freezing) point of a substance when the external
pressure is 1 atm pressure is called its normal melting (or freezing)
point. For water, this is 0oC.
• The amount of heat needed to convert the solid to the liquid state at
the melting point is called the heat of fusion of the substance.
• Molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the energy required to melt 1 mole
of a solid.
• The heat change (q) for a given sample during freezing or melting
may be calculated using the following equation:
• q = m ΔHfus
• Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is defined as the energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a
given temperature, usually, at the boiling point.
HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

• q = m S ΔT
• where m = mass of sample in grams
• S = specific heat of the sample in the appropriate physical state
• T = change in temperature
SPECIFIC HEATS

• Specific heat (ice): 2.1 J/g·C

• Specific heat (water): 4.18 J/g·C
• Specific heat (steam): 1.99 J/g·C
Sample Problem:
• You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g
imbedded in an ice block. How much heat is absorbed by
the piece of metal as it warms in your hand from the
temperature of the ice block at 1.50 oC to your body
temperature of 37.0 oC? The specific heat of copper is
0.385 J/g-oC. Assume that the metal is pure copper.
• q = m S ΔT
• = (3.10 g)(0.385 J/g-oC)(37.0 oC – 1.50 oC)
• = 42.4 J
PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE

• How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of ice at 0°C

into water at the same temperature?
• q = m ΔHfus
• = (2600 g) (334 J/g)
• = 870 kJ
• How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of water at
100.0°C into steam at the same temperature?
• q = m ΔHvap
• = (2600 g) (2260 J/g)
• = 5900 kJ
• Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water
from 0 OC to 182 OC. Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g OC over
the entire liquid range and the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
• Step 1: Heating of water from 0 OC to 100 OC
• q1 = m S Δt
• = (346 g) (4.184 J/g OC) (100 OC – 0 OC)
• = 1.45 x 105 J
• = 145 kJ
• Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 OC (a phase change)
• q2 = m ΔHvap
• = (346 g) (2260 J/g)
• = 782 kJ
• Step 3: Heating steam from 100 OC to 182 OC.
• q3 = m S Δt
• = (346 g) (1.99 J/g OC) (182 OC – 100 OC)
• = 5.65 x 104 J
• = 56.5 kJ
• The overall energy required is given by
• qT = q1 + q2 + q3
• = 145 kJ + 782 kJ + 56.5 kJ
• = 984 kJ
• Calculate the heat released when 68.0 gram of steam at 124 OC is converted to
water at 45.0 OC.
• Step 1: Cooling of steam from 124 OC to 100 OC
• q1 = m S Δt
• = (68.0 g) (1.99 J / g OC) (124 OC – 100 OC)
• = 3.25 kJ
• Step 2: Condensing 68.0 g of water at 100 OC (a phase change)
• q2 = m ΔHvap
• = (68.0 g) (2260 kJ) = 154 kJ
• Step 3: Cooling liquid water from 100 OC to 45 OC.
• q3 = m S Δt
• = (68.0 g) (4.184 J/g OC) (100 OC – 45 OC)
• = 15.6 kJ
• The overall energy required is given by
• qT = q1 + q2 + q3
• = 3.25 kJ + 154 kJ + 15.6 kJ
• = 173 kJ
PRACTICE

• 1. Calculate the amount of heat that must be absorbed by 10.0

gram of ice at -20.0 C to convert it to liquid water at 60.0 C. Given:
• Specific heat (ice) = 2.1 J/g·C
• Specific heat (water) = 4.18 J/g·C
• Hfus = 334 J/g
• 2. Calculate the amount of heat needed to melt 2.00 kilogram of
iron at its melting point (1,809 K), given that: Hfus = 13.80
kJ/mol.
• 3. What mass of water would need to evaporate from your skin in
order to dissipate 1.7 x 105 J of heat from your body? Given:
• H2O(l)→ H2O(g) Hvap = 2260 J/g
• 4. How much energy (heat) is required to convert 52.0
gram of ice at -10.0 C to steam at 100.0 C?
• 5. Acetic acid has a heat of fusion of 10.8 kJ/mol and a
heat of vaporization of 24.3 kJ/mol. What is the expected
value for the heat of sublimation of acetic acid?
Phase Diagrams
• A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a
substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure.
Features
• A. The Three Areas
• The three areas are marked solid, liquid, and vapor. Under a set of conditions in the diagram,
a substance can exist in a solid, liquid, or vapor (gas) phase.
• B. Three Lines (Curves)
• The lines that serve as boundaries between physical states
represent the combinations of pressures and temperatures at which
two phases can exist in equilibrium.
• 1. The green line divides the solid and liquid phases, and represents melting
(solid to liquid) and freezing (liquid to solid) points.
• 2. The blue line divides the liquid and gas phases, and represents vaporization
(liquid to gas) and condensation (gas to liquid) points.
• 3. The red line divides the solid and gas phases, and represents sublimation
(solid to gas) and deposition(gas to solid) points.
• C. Two Important Points
• There are two important points on the diagram, the triple point and
the critical point.
• The triple point
• The triple point is the combination of pressure and temperature at
which all three phases of matter are at equilibrium. It is the point
on a phase diagram at which the three states of matter coexist.
• The critical point
• The critical point terminates the liquid/gas phase line. It is
the set of temperature and pressure on a phase diagram
where the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance merge
together into a single phase.
• How is the normal melting and boiling points determined in a phase diagram?
• 1. In what phase is the substance at 50 °C and 1 atm pressure?
• 2. At what pressure and temperature conditions will all three
phases of the substance be present?
• 3. What is the normal melting point of the substance?
• 4. What phase(s) will exist at 1 atm and 70 °C?