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1. Associative 2. Non-associative
(Relation of one
stimulus to another) (ignore or react )
b. Operant
b. Sensitization
conditioning
Associative Learning
In this type of learning, the subject learns about the
relationship that can associate one stimulus to
another
It is a conditioned process which results in the
formation of learned responses called conditioned
reflexes
Conditioned reflex is an automatic response to a
stimulus (conditioned stimulus) which did not
previously evoke response acquired by repeatedly
associating this stimulus with another stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus)
a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioned reflexes was 1st described
by Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)
He noticed that his experimental dogs salivate just
on seeing the animal house keeper who used to feed
Some sort of association had developed in the brains
of these animals between visual stimuli related to
seeing the housekeeper (conditioned stimulus) and
food ingestion (unconditioned stimulus for
salivation when food is placed in mouth)
a) Classic Conditioning
a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioning can be integrated a
different levels of CNS
Requirements:
1) CS applied before US
2) Pairing must occur several times
3) No separation between the CS and US
a) Classic Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
In this type of conditioning the subject is taught to
perform some voluntary action in response to a
particular stimulus (visual or sound stimulus) that
alert him to perform the learned action in order to
obtain reward to avoid punishment
Alerting signal acts as conditioned stimulus whereas
pleasant or unpleasant event that follow
performance of learned response represents
unconditioned stimulus
b) Operant Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
Example:
Car driver and traffic light
The car driver stops the car on seeing the red traffic
light and drives on seeing the green light
Integration:
Hippocampus and amygdala are important in linking
the stimulus to the operation
Integration occurs in CC especially orbitofrontal
cortex
Non-associative Learning
In this type of learning, the subject learns whether
to ignore or react to a certain stimulus
It is a simple way of learning that does not need
association between 2 stimuli
It is 2 types;
A) Habituation
B) Sensitization
Habituation
It is a gradual decrease in the response to stimulus
when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
A loud and unexpected sound produces looking
towards the source of sound, change in heart rate,
and change in blood pressure
If the sound turns to be insignificant, its repetition
results in little or no response
Habituation
It is a stimulus specific e.g. traffic noise and mother
and baby
Mechanism:
Repetition of the stimulus close Ca channels in
presynaptic neurons →↓ Ca influx →↓ release of
neurotransmitters →↓ behavioral responses to the
stimulus
Habituation
Experiments performed in Aplysia californica
Sensitization
It is a potentiation in the response to stimulus (painful
or pleasant) when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
One normally ignore stray dogs by habituation, but if
he is bitten, he will become more attentive and
develop aversion reaction to them for long time
Stimulus specific:
One who is bitten by dogs will not be afraid of
donkeys or cows
Sensitization
Mechanism:
Strong or noxious stimulus → facilitating
interneurons (serotonin) →↑ cAMP in presynaptic
neurons → block of K channels → depolarization of
presynaptic neurons → keep Ca channels open →↑
Ca influx →↑ release of neurotransmitters →↑
behavioral response to mild stimuli
Sensitization
Sensitization
Memory
Def
memory is the process by which that knowledge of the
world is encoded, stored, and later retrieved (Kandel (2000),
Memory is a phase of learning
• Mechanism:
• 1. Stimulation of reverberating circuits → repeated
activation of neurons
• 2. Synaptic sensitization if sensory experience coupled with
painful stimuli
1. Sensory Memory
• Mechanism:
• 3. Posttetanic potentiation: multiple stimuli at
presynaptic terminal →↑ Ca content in presynaptic
terminal →↑ release of neurotransmitters
• Mechanism of forgetting:
• 1. Fading (spontaneous and gradual decline in the amount
of information)
• 2. Extinction (spont. disappearance of information from
memory)
2. Short-term Memory
Duration: (min to hours)
Capacity
– Small bits of informations
– Miller’s magical number: 7±2 chunks of information
Entry into storage: verbalization (describing the
items in words)
Recall or access to storage: rapid
Mechanism:
Made by formation of temporary memory traces
2. Short-term Memory
Memory trace:
Is a newly developed pathway or signal transmission
resulting from facilitation of new synapses → creation of
new circuits in the brain
This occurs by
1. Long term potentiation of synapses
2. Changes in physical properties of postsynaptic
membrane → ↑ sensitivity to chemical transmitters
Mechanism of forgetting:
New information replaces old
3. Long-term Memory
Duration: (hours to years )
Capacity
– Very large
– Information stored according to its significance
Entry into storage: practice or and punishment or
reward
Recall or access to storage: slow
Mechanism:
Made by formation of memory engrams (long-
lasting memory traces) formed by structural
changes in presynaptic terminals
Long-term potentiation
1. The binding of glutamate to its NMDA receptors and
simultaneous depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
causes the NMDA receptor channels to open.
2. This opening of the NMDA receptor channels allows
Ca2+ to enter.
3. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron causes
long-term potentiation in that neuron.
4. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron also
activates nitric oxide synthase, causing nitric oxide
production.
5. The nitric oxide then acts as a retrograde messenger,
diffusing into the presynaptic neuron and somehow
causing it to release more neurotransmitter.
3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism:
memory engrams made up by;
1. increase in number of vesicles
2. increase in number of presynaptic terminals
3. increase in release sites of chemical transmitters
4. generation of new receptor sites
5. long term potentiation
Engrams remain for long time up to several years
Formation of new engrams requires protein
synthesis
3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism of forgetting:
1. Proactive inhibition by previously stored materials
(more common)
2. Retroactive inhibition by subsequently stored
material
4. Permanent Memory
Duration: (permanent)
Capacity
– Very large
Entry into storage: very frequent practice
Recall or access to storage: very rapid (recall not
affected by brain injury (like name, write, and read)
Mechanism:
Advanced stage of long-term(permanent engrams)
Mechanism of forgetting :
No forgetting
Phases of memory
Encoding-information for each memory is assembled from
the different sensory systems and translated into whatever
form necessary to be remembered. This is presumably the
domain of the association cortices and perhaps other areas.
Consolidation-converting the encoded information into a
form that can be permanently stored. The hippocampal and
surrounding areas apparently accomplish this.
Storage-the actual deposition of the memories into the
final resting places–this is though to be in association
cortex.
Retrieval-memories are of little use if they cannot be read
out for later use. Less is known about this process.
Encoding of memory
It means classification and placing memory items in their
proper memory stores in brain
Brain areas concerned with encoding of long term memory;
1. Hippocampus (major central role) all bits of information
go to it first
2. Amygdala (emotional memory)
3. Basal forebrain (Nucleus basalis or Meynerts nucleus)
4. Noecortex
5. Mammillary body of hypothalamus
6. Orbitofrontal cortex
Encoding of memory
Select important informations
All bits (reward or punishment)
Hippocampus Mamillary
store body
Amygdala
store
(Temporal lobe) Cholinergic projections
Cholinergic projections
• Hippocampus
• Anterior & lateral
temporal lobe,
• Medial temporal lobe
• Amygdala
Hippocampus and Consolidation of memory