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Instructor:
Mamoona Shahzadi
ARGUMENTATION
ARGUMENTATION EXPOSITION
Example:
• Existence of UFO’s.
▪ If writer can prove the validity of his claim,
readers will probably be persuaded or even
convinced to accept his opinion that UFO’s
really exist.
▪ Take the following example written by an
Iranian EFL student.
1. Hasty generalization
2. Stereotype
3. Over-simplification
4. Post hoc ergo propter hoc
5. Red herring
6. False authority
7. Statistics
8. Vice and virtue words
1. Hasty Generalization:
Hasty generalization is a common mistake. Some writers
simply jump into conclusions; they do not allow any room
for exceptions.
Take the following examples:
▪ All movies are exciting.
▪ To avoid hasty generalization use modal words instead
of polar words until 100% sure.
▪ i.e. Some movies are exciting.
2. Stereotype:
Hasty generalizations made about people. The
most
common types of stereotypes are clichés,
proverbs, selections from poetry, and so on.
Take the following examples:
▪ All philosophers are Greek by origin.
▪ To avoid stereotypes, writer will have to
support his claims by valid evidence.
3. Over-simplification:
Over-simplification is another kind of logic error
frequently observed in the writing of foreign students of
English. It refers to severe reduction of alternatives and
choices.
Take the following examples:
To avoid insomnia, simply stop drinking coffee.
The problems of this country boil down into one word:
management.
To avoid oversimplification, you should identify all
possibilities. Ask yourself, "Is this the only possibility?"
4. Post hoc ergo propter hoc:
Refers to a conclusion in which time is the only
link.
X happened after Y, therefore, Y has caused X
to happen.
Remember that correlation does not
necessarily mean causation. Many events
happen exactly or almost at the same time, but
are not related at all. It is not logical to make
the conclusion that all the events happing at
the same time are causally related. They may
be coincidental (i.e., happening at the same
time but totally unrelated) rather than causal.
To avoid:
• Remember that correlation does not necessarily mean
causation.
• It is not logical to make the conclusion that all the
events happening at the same time are causally
related. They may be coincidental.
5. Red herring:
Pops up when your statements do not have any direct
relevance to the topic.
Example:
▪ Poverty is on the rise. Therefore, the government must
stop its development programs.
▪ To avoid, must be precise in distinguishing what is
relevant to your argumentation.
6. False authority:
Means arguing that a person who is knowledgeable in one
field will necessarily be knowledgeable in all fields.
Example:
▪ Hassan will be a good president because he is a good
student.
▪ My grand father is a wise man. He believes that
poverty is the cause of all crime.
▪ False authority is most dangerous in cultures which tell
the youth that the words of the old should be taken for
granted. Religion may also push you towards the
acceptance of false authority. To avoid, be certain that
your sources are experts in their fields.
7. Statistics:
Should be approached with care. Many statistics
tend to be misleading. The major flaws you can
find in statistics are:
▪ Being outdated
▪ Coming from false authorities or invalid
sources
▪ Being inapplicable/irrelevant to your
argumentation
▪ Being context-bound (local, national,
international)
▪ Being speculative rather than empirical
▪ Some people believe that statistics are sugar-
coated lies used to fool naive people. Some
writers have ironically classified lies into three
groups: damn lies, white lies, and statistics.
Therefore, before deciding to use any statistic,
ask yourself specific questions about it:
▪ Is the source valid and reliable or forgery?
▪ Is the statistic recent?
▪ Is it relevant to my argumentation?
▪ Is the source authoritative?
▪ Is it not context-dependent? Does it apply
everywhere?
▪ Where does it come from: speculation or
empirical research?
▪ Have the authors held the passage of time
constant?
Example:
• The length of paved roads has doubled over
the past 25 years.
▪ Slim milk is healthy because its content of fat
is only 2.4%.
8. Vice and virtue words :
▪ Another logical fallacy is the use of vice and virtue
words. These are words that cause good or bad religious
or emotional reactions in readers.
▪ Examples of vice and virtue words include swears,
oaths, taboos, etc.
▪ Although they may be powerful shortcuts that can urge
your readers to accept your viewpoints, vice and virtue
words are not fair enough to be used in rational
argumentation. They are suitable for demagogues; not
▪ logical writers.
Take the following examples:
▪ I swear on my mother's life that poverty is the cause of
all crime.
▪ If you want to lead your children to sudden death, send
them to private high schools.
THANK YOU