Week 4 - Machining

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Machining
 A material removal process in which a sharp
cutting tool is used to mechanically cut away
material so that the desired part geometry
remains
 Most common application: to shape metal parts
 Most versatile of all manufacturing processes
in its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high
precision and accuracy
 Casting can also produce a variety of
shapes, but it lacks the precision and
accuracy of machining
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Machined Parts
 Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

 Nonrotational (also called prismatic) -
block-like or plate-like
Figure 3.14 Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b)
nonrotational, shown here by block and flat parts.
Machining Operations and Part Geometry
 Each machining operation produces a
characteristic part geometry due to two
factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined
by feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by
the shape of the cutting tool
Generating Shape
Figure 3.15 Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)
contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
Forming to Create Shape
Figure 3.16 Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and
(c) broaching.
Forming and Generating
Figure 3.17 Combination of forming and generating to create shape:

(a) thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.
Turning
 Single point cutting tool removes material from
a rotating workpiece to generate a cylinder
 Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
 Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
 Facing
 Contour turning
 Chamfering
 Cutoff
 Threading
Turning
Figure 3.18 Turning operation.
Turning Operation
Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Facing
Tool is fed
radially inward
Figure 3.18 (a) facing
Contour Turning
 Instead of feeding tool

parallel to axis of
rotation, tool follows a
contour that is other
than straight, thus
creating a contoured
shape
Figure 3.18 (c) contour

turning
Chamfering
 Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner

of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
Figure 3.18
(e) chamfering
Cutoff
 Tool is fed radially into rotating work at

some location to cut off end of part
Figure 3.18 (f) cutoff
Threading
 Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface
of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation
at a large feed rate, thus creating threads
Figure 3.18 (g) threading
Cutting Conditions in Turning
 Rotational speed in turning
v
N Where, N = rotational speed (rev/min)/(rpm)
Do v = cutting speed (m/min)
Do = original diameter of the part (m)
 Depth of cut
d  Do Df / 2 Where, Df = final diameter (mm)

Do = original diameter (mm)
d = depth of cut (mm)
 Feed rate
Where, fr = feed rate (mm/min)
fr  Nf
f = feed (mm/rev)
 Machining time
Where, Tm = machining time (min)
Tm  L / fr L = length of the cylindrical
workpart (mm)
 Volumetric rate of material removal
RMR  vfd Where,

RMR = material removal rate (mm3/min)
f = feed (mm)
v = cutting speed (m/min)
Engine Lathe
Figure 3.19
Diagram of an
engine lathe,
showing its
principal
components
"In any moment of decision, the best thing you can
do is the right thing. The worst thing you can do is
nothing.“
-Theodore Roosevelt
Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe
 Holding the work between centers
 Chuck
 Collet
 Face plate
Holding the Work Between Centers
Figure 3.20 (a) mounting the work between centers using a "dog”
Chuck
Figure 3.20 (b) three-jaw chuck
Collet
Figure 3.20 (c) collet
Face Plate
Figure 3.20 (d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts
Boring
 Difference between boring and turning:
 Boring is performed on the inside
diameter of an existing hole
 Turning is performed on the outside
diameter of an existing cylinder
 In effect, boring is internal turning operation
 Boring machines
 Horizontal or vertical - refers to the
orientation of the axis of rotation of
machine spindle
Vertical Boring Mill
Figure 3.22 A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

Drilling
 Creates a round
hole in a workpart
 Compare to boring
which can only
enlarge an existing
hole
 Cutting tool called
a drill or drill bit
 Machine tool: drill
press
Figure 3.23 (b) drilling
Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side
Figure 3.24 Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.
Reaming
 Used to slightly
enlarge a hole,
provide better
tolerance on
diameter, and
improve surface
finish
Figure 3.25 Machining operations

related to drilling: (a) reaming
Tapping
 Used to provide
internal screw
threads on an
existing hole
 Tool called a tap
Figure 3.25 (b) tapping
Counterboring
 Provides a stepped
hole, in which a
larger diameter
follows smaller
diameter partially
into the hole
Figure 3.25 (c) counterboring
Work Holding for Drill Presses
 Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of
the following:
 Vise - general purpose workholder with two
jaws
 Fixture - workholding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular workpart
 Drill jig – similar to fixture but also provides
a means of guiding the tool during drilling
Cutting Conditions in Drilling
 Rotational speed in drilling
v
N Where, N = spindle speed (rev/min)/(rpm)
D v = cutting speed (mm/min)
D = the drill diameter (mm)
 Volumetric rate of material removal
RMR  (D / 4) fr 2
Where,
Milling
 Machining operation in which work is fed
past a rotating tool with multiple cutting
edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
 Creates a planar surface
 Other geometries possible either by cutter
path or shape
 Other factors and terms:
 Interrupted cutting operation
 Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting
edges called "teeth"
 Machine tool called a milling machine
Two Forms of Milling
Figure 3.28 Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b)
face milling.
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
 Peripheral milling
 Cutter axis parallel to surface being
machined
 Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
 Face milling
 Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being
milled
 Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
Slab Milling
 Basic form of peripheral milling in which the
cutter width extends beyond the workpiece
on both sides
Figure 3.29 (a) slab

milling
Slotting
 Width of cutter is less than workpiece
width, creating a slot in the work
Figure 3.29 (b) slotting
Conventional Face Milling
 Cutter overhangs
work on both sides
Figure 3.30 (a) conventional face milling
High speed face
milling using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy
of Kennametal
Inc.).
End Milling
 Cutter diameter is
less than work
width, so a slot is
cut into part
Figure 3.30 (c) end milling
Profile Milling
 Form of end
milling in which
the outside
periphery of a flat
part is cut
Figure 3.30 (d) profile milling
Pocket Milling
 Another form of
end milling used
to mill shallow
pockets into flat
parts
Figure 3.30 (e) pocket

milling
Surface Contouring
 Ball-nose cutter fed
back and forth
across work along a
curvilinear path at
close intervals to
create a three
dimensional surface
form
Figure 3.30 (f) surface

contouring
Horizontal Milling Machine
Figure 3.31 (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.
Vertical Milling Machine
Figure 3.32 (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine
Cutting Conditions in Milling
 Rotational speed in milling
v
N Where, N = spindle speed (rev/min)/(rpm)
D v = cutting speed (mm/min)
D = the diameter of milling cutter (mm)
 Feed rate
fr  ntNf Where, fr = feed rate (mm/min)

f = chip load (mm/tooth)
nt = number of teeth on the cutter
 Material removal rate
RMR  wdfr
Where,
fr = feed rate (mm/min)
w = width of workpiece (mm)
Wheel of Confusion
Which way is the wheel turning!?
Machining Centers
 Highly automated machine tool can perform

multiple machining operations under CNC
control in one setup with minimal human
attention
 Typical operations are milling and drilling
 Three, four, or five axes
 Other features:
 Automatic tool-changing
 Pallet shuttles
 Automatic workpart positioning
Figure 3.33 Universal machining center; highly automated, capable
of multiple machining operations under computer control in one
setup with minimal human attention (photo courtesy of Cincinnati
Milacron).
Figure 3.34 CNC 4-axis turning center (photo courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron); capable of turning and related operations,
contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer
control.
Broaching
 Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly

relative to work in direction of tool axis
Figure 3.39 Broaching operation.

Broaching
Advantages:
 Good surface finish
 Close tolerances
 Variety of work shapes possible
Cutting tool called a broach
 Owing to complicated and often
custom-shaped geometry, tooling is expensive
Internal Broaching
 Performed on internal surface of a hole

 A starting hole must be present in the part to
insert broach at beginning of stroke
Figure 3.40 Work shapes that can be cut by internal broaching;

cross-hatching indicates the surfaces broached.
Sawing
 Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of
a series of narrowly spaced teeth
 Tool called a saw blade
 Typical functions:
 Separate a workpart into two pieces
 Cut off unwanted portions of part
Power Hacksaw
Figure 3.41 (a) power hacksaw –linear reciprocating motion of

hacksaw blade against work.
Band Saw
Figure 3.41 (b) bandsaw

(vertical) – linear continuous
motion of bandsaw blade,
which is in the form of an
endless flexible loop with
teeth on one edge.
Circular Saw
Figure 3.41 (c) circular saw – rotating saw blade provides

continuous motion of tool past workpart.
how many cubes can you see?
Cutting Tool Technology
Three Modes of Tool Failure
1. Fracture failure
 Cutting force becomes excessive and/or
dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
 Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material
3. Gradual wear
 Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
 Fracture and temperature failures are
premature failures
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to
the longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
Tool Wear
Figure 3.42 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur.
Figure 3.42 Crater wear,
(above), and flank wear (right) on
a cemented carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope (photos by K. C.
Keefe, Manufacturing Technology
Lab, Lehigh University).
Mechanisms that cause wear at the tool-chip
and tool-work interfaces
 Abrasion – mechanical wearing action due to hard

particles in the work material.
 Adhesion – welding which is occur when two metals
are forced into contact under high pressure and
temperature.
 Diffusion – it is a process in which an exchange of
atoms takes place across a close contact boundary
between two materials.
 Chemical reactions – occur due to high temperature and
clean surfaces at the tool-chip interface in machining
at high speeds. (E.g.: oxidation on the rake face of the
tool)
 Plastic deformation – occur at the cutting edge. Cutting
force generated at high temperature cause the edge to
deform plastically.
Tool Wear vs. Time
Figure 3.43 Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank

wear (FW) is used here as the measure of
tool wear. Crater wear follows a similar growth
curve.
Effect of Cutting Speed
Figure 3.44 Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three
cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank
wear.
Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed
Figure 3.45 Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.
Tool Life Criteria in Production
1. Complete failure of cutting edge
2. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater
wear) by the machine operator
3. Fingernail test across cutting edge
4. Changes in sound emitted from operation
5. Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and
difficult to dispose of
6. Degradation of surface finish
7. Increased power
8. Workpiece count
9. Cumulative cutting time
Tool Geometry
Two categories:
 Single point tools
 Used for turning, boring, shaping, and
planing
 Multiple cutting edge tools
 Used for drilling, reaming, tapping,
milling, broaching, and sawing
Single-Point Tool Geometry
Figure 3.47 (a) Seven

elements of single-point
tool geometry; and (b) the
tool signature convention
that defines the seven
elements.
Holding the Tool
Figure 3.48 Three ways of holding and presenting the cutting edge
for a single-point tool: (a) solid tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed
insert, one way of holding a cemented carbide insert; and (c)
mechanically clamped insert, used for cemented carbides,
ceramics, and other very hard tool materials.
Common Insert Shapes
Figure 3.49 Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c)
rhombus with two 80 point angles, (d) hexagon with three 80
point angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with two 35 point angles. Also shown
are typical features of the geometry.
A collection of metal cutting
inserts made of various
materials (photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.).
Twist Drills
 By far the most common cutting tools for

hole-making
 Usually made of high speed steel
Figure 3.50 Standard geometry of a twist drill.

Twist Drill Operation
 Rotation and feeding of drill bit result in relative
motion between cutting edges and workpiece
to form the chips
 Cutting speed varies along cutting edges as
a function of distance from axis of rotation
 Relative velocity at drill point is zero, so no
cutting takes place
 A large thrust force is required to drive the
drill forward into hole
Twist Drill Operation - Problems
 Chip removal
 Flutes must provide sufficient clearance to
allow chips to be extracted from bottom of
hole during the cutting operation
 Friction makes matters worse
 Rubbing between outside diameter of drill
bit and newly formed hole
 Delivery of cutting fluid to drill point to
reduce friction and heat is difficult because
chips are flowing in opposite direction
Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to machining
operation to improve cutting performance
 Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear and friction zones
2. Friction at tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
 Other functions and benefits:
 Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)
 Reduce temperature of workpart for easier
handling
 Improve dimensional stability of workpart
(prevent thermal expansion)
Cutting Fluid Functions
 Cutting fluids can be classified according to
function:
 Coolants - designed to reduce effects of heat in
machining
 Lubricants - designed to reduce tool-chip and
tool-work friction
Coolants
 Water used as base in coolant-type cutting
fluids
 Most effective at high cutting speeds where
heat generation and high temperatures are
problems
 Most effective on tool materials that are most
susceptible to temperature failures (e.g., HSS)
Lubricants
 Usually oil-based fluids
 Most effective at lower cutting speeds
 Also reduce temperature in the operation
Cutting Fluid Contamination
 Tramp oil (machine oil, hydraulic fluid, etc.)
 Garbage (cigarette butts, food, etc.)
 Small chips
 Molds, fungi, and bacteria
Dealing with Cutting Fluid Contamination
 Replace cutting fluid at regular and frequent
intervals
 Use filtration system to continuously or
periodically clean the fluid
 Dry machining
Cutting Fluid Filtration
Advantages:
 Prolong cutting fluid life between changes
 Reduce fluid disposal cost
 Cleaner fluids reduce health hazards
 Lower machine tool maintenance
 Longer tool life
Dry Machining
 No cutting fluid is used
 Avoids problems of cutting fluid contamination,
disposal, and filtration
 Problems with dry machining:
 Overheating of tool
 Operating at lower cutting speeds and
production rates to prolong tool life
 Absence of chip removal compared to
benefits of cutting fluids in grinding and
milling that can help remove the chips
quickly.
Analyze the image!
the lines in this picture below

are completely parallel would
you believe ?
3.3 GRINDING AND OTHER ABRASIVE
PROCESSES
1. Grinding
2. Related Abrasive Process
Abrasive Machining
 Material removal by action of hard, abrasive
particles usually in the form of a bonded wheel
 Generally used as finishing operations after
part geometry has been established by
conventional machining
 Grinding is most important abrasive process
 Other abrasive processes: honing, lapping,
superfinishing, polishing, and buffing
Why Abrasive Processes are Important
 Can be used on all types of materials
 Some can produce extremely fine surface
finishes, to 0.025 m (1 -in)
 Some can hold dimensions to extremely close
tolerances
Grinding
 Material removal process in which abrasive
particles are contained in a bonded grinding
wheel that operates at very high surface
speeds
 Grinding wheel usually disk-shaped and
precisely balanced for high rotational speeds
The Grinding Wheel
 Consists of abrasive particles and bonding
material
 Abrasive particles accomplish cutting
 Bonding material holds particles in place
and establishes shape and structure of
wheel
Grinding Wheel Parameters
 Abrasive material
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure
Abrasive Material Properties
 High hardness
 Wear resistance
 Toughness
 Friability - capacity to fracture when cutting
edge dulls, so a new sharp edge is exposed
Traditional Abrasive Materials
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) - most common
abrasive
 Used to grind steel and other ferrous
high-strength alloys
 Silicon carbide (SiC) - harder than Al2O3 but
not as tough
 Used on aluminum, brass, stainless steel,
some cast irons and certain ceramics
Newer Abrasive Materials
 Cubic boron nitride (CBN) – very hard, very
expensive
 Suitable for steels
 Used for hard materials such as hardened
tool steels and aerospace alloys
 Diamond – Even harder, very expensive
 Occur naturally and also made synthetically
 Not suitable for grinding steels
 Used on hard, abrasive materials such as
ceramics, cemented carbides, and glass
Grain Size
 Small grit sizes produce better finishes
 Larger grit sizes permit larger material removal
rates
 Harder work materials require smaller grain
sizes to cut effectively
 Softer materials require larger grit sizes
Bonding Material Properties
 Must withstand centrifugal forces and high
temperatures
 Must resist shattering during shock loading
of wheel
 Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for
cutting yet allow worn grains to be dislodged
to expose new sharp grains
Wheel Structure
Figure 3.53 Typical structure of a grinding wheel.
Surface Finish
 Most grinding is performed to achieve good
surface finish
 Best surface finish is achieved by:
 Small grain sizes
 Higher wheel speeds
 Denser wheel structure = more grits per
wheel area
Why Specific Energy in Grinding is High
 Size effect - small chip size causes energy to
remove each unit volume of material to be
significantly higher
 Roughly 10 times higher for grinding
compared to conventional machining
 Individual grains have extremely negative rake
angles, resulting in low shear plane angles and
high shear strains
 Not all grits are engaged in actual cutting
Three Types of Grain Action
 Cutting - grit projects far enough into surface to
form a chip - material is removed
 Plowing - grit projects into work, but not far
enough to cut - instead, surface is deformed
and energy is consumed, but no material is
removed
 Rubbing - grit contacts surface but only
rubbing, friction occurs, thus consuming
energy, but no material is removed
Grain Actions in Grinding
Figure 3.55 Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting,

(b) plowing, and (c) rubbing.
Temperatures at Work Surface
 Grinding is characterized by high

temperatures and high friction, and most of
the energy remains in the ground surface,
resulting in high work surface temperatures
 Damaging effects include:
 Surface burns and cracks
 Metallurgical damage immediately
beneath the surface
 Softening of the work surface if heat
treated
 Residual stresses in the work surface
How to Reduce Grinding Temperatures
 Decrease infeed (depth of cut) d
 Reduce wheel speed v
 Reduce number of active grits per square inch
on the grinding wheel C
 Increase work speed vw
 Use a grinding fluid
Four Types of Surface Grinding
Figure 3.57 (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b)

horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable, (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
Surface Grinder
Figure 3.58 Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and reciprocating

worktable (most common grinder type).
Cylindrical Grinding
Figure 3.59 Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external, and

(b) internal.
Centerless Grinding
Figure 3.60 External centerless grinding.
Creep Feed Grinding
Figure 3.61 Comparison of (a) conventional surface

grinding and (b) creep feed grinding.

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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

 Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

Figure 3.17 Combination of forming and generating to create shape:

Figure 3.18 Turning operation.

Figure 3.18 (a) facing

 Instead of feeding tool

Figure 3.18 (c) contour

 Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner

 Tool is fed radially into rotating work at

Figure 3.18 (f) cutoff

Figure 3.18 (g) threading

 Rotational speed in turning

d  Do Df / 2 Where, Df = final diameter (mm)

 Volumetric rate of material removal

RMR  vfd Where,

Figure 3.20 (b) three-jaw chuck

Figure 3.20 (c) collet

Figure 3.20 (d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts

Figure 3.22 A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

Figure 3.23 (b) drilling

Figure 3.25 Machining operations

Figure 3.25 (b) tapping

Figure 3.25 (c) counterboring

 Rotational speed in drilling

Figure 3.29 (a) slab

Figure 3.29 (b) slotting

Figure 3.30 (a) conventional face milling

Figure 3.30 (c) end milling

Figure 3.30 (d) profile milling

Figure 3.30 (e) pocket

Figure 3.30 (f) surface

Figure 3.31 (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.

Figure 3.32 (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine

 Rotational speed in milling

fr  ntNf Where, fr = feed rate (mm/min)

 Material removal rate

Which way is the wheel turning!?

 Highly automated machine tool can perform

 Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly

Figure 3.39 Broaching operation.

 Performed on internal surface of a hole

Figure 3.40 Work shapes that can be cut by internal broaching;

Figure 3.41 (a) power hacksaw –linear reciprocating motion of

Figure 3.41 (b) bandsaw

Figure 3.41 (c) circular saw – rotating saw blade provides

Figure 3.42 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

 Abrasion – mechanical wearing action due to hard

Figure 3.43 Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank

Figure 3.45 Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.

Figure 3.47 (a) Seven

 By far the most common cutting tools for

Figure 3.50 Standard geometry of a twist drill.

the lines in this picture below

Figure 3.53 Typical structure of a grinding wheel.

Figure 3.55 Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting,

 Grinding is characterized by high

Figure 3.57 (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b)

Figure 3.58 Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and reciprocating

Figure 3.59 Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external, and

Figure 3.60 External centerless grinding.

Figure 3.61 Comparison of (a) conventional surface

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