BT 101 - Engineering Biology

Dr. P. Lakshmi
Department of Biotechnology
Unit II
 Cell structure and function, inside the cell, cell–cell Interactions,
cellular respiration and fermentation, photosynthesis, cell cycle

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 What fuels life in cells?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP )
ATP=>Ribose +Adenine + 3 Phosphate groups

 ATP has high potential energy and is an

unstable molecule
 ATP converts into ADP through exogenic
reaction
 ADP is a comparatively stable molecule
and converts into ATP through endogenic
reaction
 Breaking one phosphoanhydride bond
releases 7.3 kcal/mol or 30.5 KJ/mol
of energy
 Functions of ATP
Chemical work
• ATP is used for synthesizing macromolecules like
proteins, nucleic acids etc.
• ATP also plays a crucial role indifferent life processes
including cell signaling, Photosynthesis, Reproduction
etc.
Transport work
• ATP supplies energy needed for transportation of
molecules across the plasma membrane (ex: active
transport)
Mechanical work
• ATP supplies energy for cellular movements including
muscle contraction
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 Cells work on solar
energy
 Sun: 4 million billion
kWh of energy/ day

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 How cells make ATP?
 Metabolic pathways harvest energy from high-energy molecules
 The most common source of chemical energy used by organisms — Glucose
 The energy released during the processing of sugar is used to transfer a
phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) for generating ATP

 ATP has high potential energy and hence is unstable and is not stored
 Cells contains ATP to sustain from 30 seconds to a few minutes of normal activity
 Most cells keep making ATP all the time
 How cell makes ATP?
 Cells produce ATP from chemical energy of Glucose
 Glucose is a product of photosynthesis.
 Both plants and animals store glucose and oxidize it to provide chemical energy in the form of
ATP.
 Glucoseto ATP
• When glucose undergoes the uncontrolled oxidation reaction called burning, some of the
potential energy stored in its chemical bonds is converted to kinetic energy in the form of
heat and light:
• 685 kilocalories (kcal) of heat is released when one mole of glucose is oxidized

• Oxidation/burning of 1 mole of glucose

(∼ 180g) releases 685 kilocalories (kcal)
of heat (boil 2.5 gallons/ 9.4l of water)
• Glucose can be oxidised by cellular
respiration or fermentation
 Cellular Respiration
 Glucose is is oxidized through a long series of carefully controlled redox reactions
(rxns occur million times/minute )-Released free energy =>ATP from ADP and Pi
 Cellular respiration results in complete oxidation of glucose to CO2
 Cellular respiration releases more energy from glucose than fermentation.
 Conversion of the chemical energy in glucose to chemical energy in ATP is done
through 4 interconnected processes:
 Glycolysis
 Pyruvate processing
 Citric acid cycle
 Electron transport chain
 Electron carriers
•In each reaction, when a molecule donates an electron it is said to be oxidized and the electron
acceptor is said to be reduced.
• Electron carriers temporarily store the energy harvested from glucose before it is converted in to
ATP.
•Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

•Oxidation of NADH to NAD+ results in the liberation of 53 kcal/mole (under standard conditions).
NADH NAD+ + H+ + 2e- +53 kcal/mole
•The NADH moves to the electron transport chain and donates a pair of electrons (becomes oxidized)
to the first compound in the chain.
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

 Aerobic Vs Anaerobic processes

 Yeast: Facultative Anaerobe

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 Respiration Vs Fermentation
 Respiration: Complete oxidation of glucose into CO2, H2O and energy
 Fermentation: Does not fully oxidize glucose
 Small reduced organic molecules are produced as waste (Eg: Alcohol )
 Respiration produces more energy than fermentation

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 Respiration / Complete Oxidation of Glucose
 Set of four interconnected processes
1. Glycolysis: 1 6C glucose -> 2, 3C pyruvate; ATP is Produced and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is reduced to form NADH
2. Pyruvate processing: Each pyruvate release 1 CO2 + Acetyl CoA (2C); More
NADH formation
3. Citric acid Cycle: Each Acetyl CoA reduced to 2 CO2; ATP & NADH
produced (flavin adenine dinucleotide) FADH2 is formed
4. Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation: Electrons from NADH
and FADH2 move through a series of proteins -> create proton gradient
across a membrane; Proton flow – utilized to make more ATP

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Cellular Respiration
 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

 Otherwise, known as Cold combustion/ biochemical non detonating gas reaction

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70
•Same molecule can serve many different functions in the cell.
•Regulating key reactions involved in catabolic and anabolic pathways, the cell is able to maintain its internal
environment even under different environmental conditions—a condition referred to as homeostasis.
 Catabolism=>Respiration
•Enzyme- catalyzed reactions of cells can break down and transform these other
carbohydrates to produce glucose or intermediates in cellular respiration.

•Enzymes routinely break down fats to release the glycerol and convert the fatty
acids into acetyl CoA molecules.

•Proteins are first hydrolyzed to their constituent amino acids=>enzyme-catalyzed

reactions remove the amino (-NH2) groups (excreted in urine as waste) and the
remaining carbon compounds => pyruvate/acetyl CoA/intermediates in
glycolysis and citric acid cycle.

•When all three types of molecules are available in the cell to generate ATP,
carbohydrates are used up first, then fats, and finally proteins.
 Anabolism=>Respiration
•About half the required amino acids in humans can be synthesized from
molecules siphoned from the citric acid cycle.

•Acetyl CoA is the starting point for anabolic pathways that result in the
synthesis of fatty acids

•Intermediates in glycolysis can be used in the synthesis of ribonucleotides and

deoxyribonucleotides.

•If ATP is abundant, pyruvate and lactate (from fermentation) can be used in the
synthesis of glucose.

•Excess glucose may be converted to glycogen or starch and stored.

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Central Role in Metabolism
 Multitude of different
chemical reactions
 Dots: molecules involved in
metabolism
 Green lines: Enzyme
catalysed reactions
 Bold lines: 3 pathways
of cellular respiration
 Red dot: Glucose
Many different molecules—including lipids,
amino acids, and CO2-end up as radiolabeled
when cells are fed glucose with radioactive
carbons (14C).
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 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
 Observed in all organisms
 Discovery & elucidation of Glycolysis is accidental
 Greatest achievement in the history biochemistry
 In 1890s Hans and Edward Buchner): Sucrose - Yeast
experiments
 Boiling stopped the reactions: Denaturation of enzymes

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 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
 Sequence of 10 reactions
 3 Key points
1. Glycolysis starts with utilising ATP : Energy investment
phase
2. Energy pay off phase: ATP is produced: Substrate level
phosphorylation
3. Each Glucose molecule processed, net yield
 2 ATP (4-2=2)
 2 NADH
 2 Pyruvate
 ATP regulates glycolysis through feedback inhibition

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Glycolysis

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Glycolysis (Contd…)

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Glycolysis