Thinking

Remembering
Memory
Thinking
 Thinking is behavior that uses ideas or symbolic
representations of things or events.

 Most thinking occurs in the course of active

manipulation and exploration of the environment.
Kinds of Thinking
 Associative Thinking- includes undirected and uncontrolled
thinking such as occur in reveries and dreams.
a.) Autistic thinking- also called “daydreaming” is thinking which is
governed by personal needs or by the self.

b.) Night dreaming- according to Freud, this is due to unconscious

impulses and it aims to gratify or satisfy a drive. The dream content includes
the images and ideas expressed in the dream and are of two types:
1. Latent (Hidden) Content
2. Manifest Content
 c.) Imagination- the process of creating objects
or events without sensory data.

d.) Eidetic Imagery (Photographic Minds)

an uncommonly vivid imagery as through the
person actually perceives.
 Directed Thinking- thinking oriented towards a goal- as in
reasoning about a problem.

a.) critical thinking- crucial judgment or evaluation of

something.

b.) creative thinking- involves the ability to produce new

forms in art or mechanics or to solve problems by novel
methods.
 Four Distinct Steps in the
germination of Original Ideas

• Preparation
• Incubation
• Illumination
• Verification
 c.) Brainstorming- Practice or technique which
involves grouping people to solve a problem in a free
environment.
 d.) Reasoning- Process of logical thinking or
problem solving. There are three forms of reasoning:
1. Inductive
2. Deductive
3. Syllogistic
 e.) Problem Solving- Process used in discovering
the correct sequence of alternatives leading to a goal or
to an ideational solution. The steps for problem solving
are the following:
1. Becoming aware of the problem
2. Clarification of the problem
3. Emergence of the hypothesis
4. Elaboration of the hypothesis
5. Testing the hypothesis
6. Generalization
Remembering
• Defined as persistence of learning after practice has
ceased.
• According to Hilgard, it is “to show in present
responses some signs of earlier learned responses.”
Types of Remembering
1. Redintegration- it is the technical term for
reintegrate. It is to establish an earlier experience
on the basis of partial cues.
2. Recall- simple revival of past experiences.
3. Recognition- involves recognizing someone or
something as familiar.
4. Relearning- involves more rapid learning than
before on the basis of some retention from earlier
learning.
Forgetting
 The loss of ability to recall, recollect, or reproduce what has
been previously learned.
 Various theories that presume possible causes of this process:
a.) Passive decay through disuse
This theory assumes that forgetting takes place
through the passage of time.
b.) Systematic distortion of memory traces
This also assumes changes in memory traces. Details are
either omitted or added and sometimes the story or picture is made
“better” than the original.
 c.) Interference Effects
• Retroactive inhibition refers to a loss in retention as the
result of new learning which acts as back up and inhibits
the traces of older learning.
• Proactive inhibition refers to similar inhibitory effects
which occur when the interpolated material is placed
ahead of the materials to be learned.
d.) Motivated Forgetting
• Forgetting of material that is psychologically painful or
inconsistent with the individual’s evaluation of the self.
 e.) Other theories- Quantitative decay of retention

• Attitudinal and motivational factors- things we

desire to remember are more easily remember.
• Nature of materials learned- materials that are
meaningful and that lend themselves to good
organization are not easily forgotten.
• Emotional blocking- related to motivational forgetting.
• Faulty techniques of study
Memory
 Defined as the extent to which original and previous
learned information still persists.

 It involves the storage of learned items and

information that are retrieved for future use.
Types of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
• Holds sensory information for less than one second
after an item is perceived.
• The ability to look at an item and remember what it
looked like with just a split second of observation, or
memorization, is the example of sensory memory.
• Information stays for less than a second then
transferred to short term memory.
2. Short Term Memory (STM)
• This is our working memory and our active memory
containing the information that we are presently
working.

3. Long Term Presentation (LTM)

• This kind of memory remains for the rest of our lives.
 Three Types of Long-Term
Memory
 Semantic Memory- types of memories for rules
and concepts.
 Procedural Memory- most simple and basic form
of long-term memory.
 Episodic memory- refers to the records of personal
experiences which are of great significance.
Three Processes of Memory
1. Encoding
• Receiving, processing and combining of received
information.
• There are four types of encoding namely:
a.) Visual Encoding- the process of encoding
images and visual sensory information.
b.) Elaborative Encoding- the process of actively
relating new information to knowledge that is already
in memory.
c.) Acoustic Encoding- the encoding of auditory
impulses.

d.) Semantic Encoding- the processing and

encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning
or can be applied to a context.
2. Storage
• Creation of a permanent record of the encoded
information.

3. Retrieval (Recall)
• Calling back the stored information in response to
some cue for use in a process or activity.
Three main types of recall
1. Free Recall
• Describes the process in which a person is given a
list of items to remember and is tested by being
asked to recall them on any order.
• Often displays evidence of primacy and recency
effects.
2. Cued Recall
• This is when a person is given a list of item to
remember and is then tested with cues to remember
material.

3. Serial Recall
• The ability to recall items or events in the order in
which they occurred.
• The ability of humans to store items in memory and
recall them through the use of language.