Topic 7

Transmission Systems
 Power System
A complicated network used for generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical power.

 Most of the world’s electrical energy is generated, transmitted

and distributed by means of alternating voltages and currents.

2
Generation, Transmission and
Distribution
Modern Power System
 The structure of the power systems consists of:
1. Generation subsystem
2. Transmission and sub-transmission subsystem
3. Distribution subsystem
4. Loads subsystem

4
Modern Power System
 Generation subsystem:
 Generators: one of the essential components of
power systems is the three-phase AC generators
known as synchronous generator or alternator.
 Transformers: another major component of a power
system. The transformer transfers power with very
high efficiency from one level of voltage to another
level.

5
Modern Power System
 Transmission and sub-transmission subsystem:
 The purpose of the overhead transmission lines is to
transfer electric energy from generating units at various
locations to the distribution system which ultimately
supplies the load.
 Transmission system is to deliver bulk power from power
stations to the load centers and large industrial
consumers.

6
Modern Power System
 Distribution subsystem:
 The distribution system is that part which connects
the distribution substations to the consumers’ service-
entrance equipment.
 Distribution system is to deliver power from the
substations to various consumers.

7
Modern Power System
 Load subsystem:
 Loads of power systems are divided into industrial,
commercial, and residential. Very large industrial
loads may be served directly from the transmission
network, and small industrial loads are served from
the primary distribution network.

8
HVAC, HVDC

Extra High Voltage, and

High Voltage
Modern Power System

10
Power Generation
Types of Power Generation –
Fossil Fuels

 Coal,
 Petroleum,
 Natural Gas,
 Diesel
Power Generation - Heat
Nuclear Power Plant
Hydroelectric Generation
Combined Cycle Power
Generation
The Generator

 Wye-connected
 142.6 MVA, 11500 Volts, 110 MW
 3,000 rpm (ηsynch)
 0.85 pf
 Armature Current = 7159A (Ia)
 Armature Voltage = 11.5kV (VL-L)
 Field Amperes = 1246 A (If)
 Exciter Voltage = 500 V
Types of Power Generation –
Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy: hydroelectric, wind,

solar (PV, CSP, chimney, CHP),
geothermal, ocean tides, biomass etc
Integration of
Renewable
Energy
Power Transmission
and Distribution
Overview
Introduction
 The purpose of transmission network is to transfer electric energy
from generating units at various locations to the distribution system
which ultimately supplies the load.
 Electrical energy is carried by conductor such as overhead lines and
underground cables.
 Although these conductors appear very ordinary, but they possess
important electrical properties that greatly affect the transmission of
the electrical energy.
 These values are greatly affected by the line constants, resistance
(R), inductance (L), capacitance (C) and conductance (G).

21
Introduction
 Electrical power transmission can be carried out by overhead lines
as well as underground cables. An overhead line is an electric
power transmission line suspended by towers or utility poles.
 Since most of the insulation are provided by air, overhead lines are
generally the low-cost method of transmission for large quantity of
electric energy.
 Towers for support of the lines are made of wood, concrete,
aluminum, and occasionally reinforced plastics.
 The bare wire conductors on the line are generally made of
aluminum, though some copper wires are used in medium voltage
and low voltage distribution lines.

22
Overhead
Transmis-
sion
System
Main Components of Overhead
Lines
 Conductors: to transmit power where current flow through
 Supports which may be poles or towers to support the conductors
 Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the
conductors from the ground
 Cross arms and clamp which provide support to the insulators
 Protective devices, such as ground wires, lightning arrestors, circuit
breakers, relays, jumper, vibration damper, fuses and isolating
switches etc.
 Voltage regulating devices, which maintain the voltage at the
receiving end within permissible limits.
 Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, bird guard,
24
guard wire, stays and guys etc.
Overhead Lines: Conductor

Copper
Aluminium
Steel cored aluminium 25
Overhead Lines: Conductor
 Ideal conductor shall achieve the properties as follow:
 High electrical conductivity.
 High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stress.
 Low cost so that it can be used for long distance.
 Commonly used materials such as copper/ Aluminium.
 Stranded in order to increase the flexibility.

26
Overhead Lines: Line Support

27
Overhead Lines: Line Support
 Supporting structures must keep the conductors at a safe height
from the ground and at an adequate distance from each other.

 Structures come in a wide variety of styles depending on the type of

line.

 Structures may be as simple as wood poles directly set in the earth,

carrying one or more cross-arm beams to support conductors, or
"armless" construction with conductors supported on insulators
attached to the side of the pole.

 They are available in a wide variety of materials: Metal galvanized

steel and aluminum rods, concrete, wood, plastics, composites etc.

28
 a b

a: wooden poles
d
b: steel poles
c: reinforced concrete poles 29
c
d: steel tower
Overhead Lines: Insulator

glass

porcelain

polymer
Overhead Lines: Cross Arm and
Clamp

31
Overhead Lines: Jumpers

32
Overhead Lines: Visibility Marker
Balls

• It is common to see these red marker balls on power lines that

span a large distance. The purpose of these marker balls is to
indicate to low-flying aircraft where the power line is so that
they do not fly into it (called a wire strike).
33
Overhead Lines: Continuous Earth
Wire / Overhead Ground Wire

34
Overhead Lines: Bird Guard
Info:
• Shield prevents contamination
by bird’s dropping
• Oval form of shield prevents bird
sitting above the insulator
• Length of the insulator
corresponds to the voltage
stress

35
Power Transmission
and Distribution
Transmission Voltage Level
Power Line Categories
(Based on Voltage Levels)
 A major goal of overhead power line design is to
maintain adequate clearance between energized
conductors and the ground so as to prevent dangerous
contact with the line.
 Today, overhead lines are operated at voltages
exceeding 765 kV (line voltage) between conductors.
 Transmission lines are classified in the electrical power
industry by the range of voltages (Accordance to the
International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 60038):

37
Power Line Categories
(Based on Voltage Levels)
 Low voltage – less than 1000 volts, used for connection
between a residential or small commercial customer and the
utility.
 Medium Voltage – between 1 kV and to about 35 kV, used for
distribution in urban and rural areas.
 High Voltage – (> 35kV to 230kV) used for sub-transmission
and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and
connection to very large consumers.
 Extra High Voltage (transmission) – over 230 kV, up to about
800 kV, used for long distance, very high power transmission.
 Ultra High Voltage – higher than 800 kV.

38
Transmission Voltage Level

Malaysia
415/240 V

11 kV

33 kV

132 kV
270 kV
500 kV
Why High Transmission Voltage

1. Increase transmission efficiency

P = VI  high V low I  low I2R losses
2. Decreases % line voltage drop
3. Reduces volume of conductor material
Limitation of High Transmission
Voltage
1. Increased in cost of insulating the
conductors
2. Increased in cost of transformers,
switchgear and other thermal apparatus
Power Transmission
and Distribution
Transmission Systems: Three-
phase or single phase
3-phase vs single-phase
Which one better?
 If the 3 phase system is balanced, then the
neutral current will be zero and the neutral wires
can be removed.
 Hence, it requires only half the number of
conductors needed for the 3 separate single-
phase systems to deliver the same power
 Also then, the total I2R losses in the 3 phase
systems are only half those of the 3 separate
single-phase system (because ½ amount of
conductors are used)
3-phase vs single phase
 However, the majority of 3 phase systems are
4-wire, Y – connected systems where a
grounded neutral conductor is used
 Neutral conductors are used to reduce transient
overvoltage caused by lightning strikes and line-
switching operations, and also carry
unbalanced currents
 Neutral conductors for transmission lines are
typically smaller in size and ampacity than the
phase conductor, why?
3 phase vs single phase

 Still, the cost of 3 phase system is still

cheaper than the single phase system
 Second advantage of 3 phase system =
the total instantaneous electric power is
nearly constant
 On the other hand, three phase machines
produce nearly constant torque and
thereby minimize shaft vibration and noise
Power Transmission
and Distribution
Overhead and Underground
Overhead vs underground
which one better?
Overhead vs Underground
Overhead VS
Underground

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Overhead and Underground
Cables
Overhead vs Underground
 Public safety: Underground
 Initial cost: underground 5 – 10 x more costly
 Flexibility: Overhead
 More Faults: Overhead
 Appearance: Which one look better?
 Interference with communication circuits: Overhead system
causes EM interference with telephone line.
 Fault location and repairs: Underground is much more difficult
 Current carrying capacity: Overhead
 Useful life: Underground
 Maintenance cost: underground is very low because less
chance of faults, service interruptions from wind, ice, lightning
etc.
 Examples – Single Core and 3-
52
Core XLPE
Power Transmission
and Distribution
DC or AC?
Comparison of DC and AC
Transmission
 DC advantages:
1. Requires only 2 conductors as compared to 3 for
AC transmission
2. There is no inductance, capacitance , phase
displacement and surge problems
3. Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop
is lesser for the same load and sending end voltage
4. There is no skin effect. Therefore, entire cross-
section of the line conductor is utilised
 The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current
(AC) to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current
density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at its
core.
 That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin" of the
conductor.
 The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to
increase with the frequency of the current.

55
Comparison of DC and AC
Transmission
 DC advantages:
5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress
on the insulation is less, hence requires less
insulation
6. It has less corona loss and reduced interference
with communication circuits
7. The high DC is free from the dielectric losses
8. There are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties
Comparison of DC and AC
Transmission
 AC disadvantages:
1. An AC line requires more copper than DC
2. The construction of AC transmission line is more
complicated than a DC
3. Due to the skin effect, the effective resistance of
the line is increased
4. AC line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a
continuous loss of power due to charging current
 58

Comparison of TL Tower
59
 Comparison of DC and AC
Transmission
 DC disadvantages:  AC advantages:
1. Electric power cannot be 1. The power can be generated
generated at high DC voltage at high voltages
due to commutation problems
2. The maintenance of AC sub-
2. The DC voltage cannot be stations is easy and cheaper
stepped up for transmission of
3. The AC voltage can be
power at high voltages
stepped up/ down by
3. The DC switches and circuit transformers efficiently
breakers have their own
limitations
 Often the term system frequency is used. This refers to the
common frequency throughout the power system.

 The system frequency in the US and some other countries is 60

Hz, whereas in most of the countries it is 50 Hz.

 In a power system network the voltages and currents at different

locations are different but the frequency is the same throughout.

Why is the system frequency 50/60 Hz ?

Ans: Higher the frequency higher the speed and higher the
electrical output of synchronous generator. But higher
frequency means higher skin effect and hence higher losses.
For optimal operation frequency is maintained at 50/60 Hz.

61
High Voltage DC Transmission
Lines (HVDC)
 Electrical power plant generates electricity in the form of AC
voltage and current. This power is transmitted over a long
distance to the load centers via AC transmission lines.
 However, under certain circumstances, it becomes desirable
to transmit this power over DC transmission lines. This
alternative becomes economically attractive where a large
amount of power is to be transmitted over a very long
distance from a remote generating plant to the load center.
 This breakeven distance for HVDC overhead transmission
lines usually lies between the range of 300 -400miles (Approx.
500 -650km)

62
High Voltage DC Transmission
Lines (HVDC)
 HVDC is used to transmit large amount of energy over long distance
or through waterway.
 In HVDC system, the AC voltage is rectified and transmit the energy
over DC lines.
 At the end of the DC line, an inverter converts the DC voltage to AC
voltage.

63
High Voltage DC Transmission
Lines (HVDC)

64
It sounds like dc is better than ac,
then why ac is still more popular
than dc?
 Cost is
comparatively high
for voltage < 500 kV
 Distance dependent
 If multi-level of DC
voltage is preferable,
then again… 
Cost
 66

Limitation of AC
67
A typical HVDC transmission system.
 69

HVDC Applications:
1. Interconnection of non-synchronous AC power
systems, even at different frequencies.

2. Power transmission over long undersea cable

links, if the AC solution requires intermediate
compensation.
3. Point-to-point, long-distance transmission of
large blocks of power.
For entries 1. and 2., HVDC is the only practical
solution.
For entry 3. the choice of DC or AC transmission is a
matter of technical-economic convenience.
Transmission Line
Performance Analysis
Representation of Line
 All transmission lines in a power system exhibit the electrical
properties of resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C)
and conductance (G).
 The inductance and capacitance is due to the effects of
magnetic and electric fields around the conductor.
 The resistance and inductive reactance form the series
impedance. The capacitance exists between conductors form
a shunt path along the line length.
 The shunt conductance accounts for leakage currents flowing
across the insulators and ionized pathway in the air.

71
Performance of Transmission
Line
 The important considerations in the design and
operation of a transmission line are the determination of
voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission.
 These values are greatly influenced by the line
constants R, L and C of the transmission line.

72
 Classification of Overhead
Transmission Line
 Short transmission line :
Length < 50 km, Vline < 20 kV
capacitance effects are small and negligible

 Medium transmission line:

Length = 50 – 150 km, 20 kV< Vl < 100 kV

 Long transmission line:

Length > 150 km, Vl > 100 kV
73
Voltage Regulation
 The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a
transmission line between conditions of no load and full
load is called voltage regulation
 % Voltage regulation VRNL  VR
 100%
VR
where VRNL = receiving end voltage at no load
VR = receiving end voltage with load
 It is desired to be small.

74
Transmission Efficiency
 The power obtained at the receiving end of a
transmission line is generally less than the sending end
power due to losses in the line resistance.
 The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end
power of a transmission line is known as the
transmission efficiency
Receiving end power
% T  100%
Sending end power
VR I R cos R

VS I S cos S
75
Short TL
 In spite of their great differences in power rating, voltage levels,
lengths, and mechanical construction; transmission lines possesses
a resistance, R, inductive reactance XL while the capacitance effect
is negligible.
 These impedance are uniformly distributed over the entire length of
the line.

76
 Performance of Short TL
VSS
Sending end current Receiving end current
ISS R jXL
IRR I.XL

VRR
VSS VRR I.R
Sending end voltage Receiving end voltage
R
S

I
(a) (b)

cos S Sending end power

factor
cos R Receiving end power
77 factor
Performance of 3-phase Short
TL

 Three-phase system generally can be analysed using single-phase

method.
 VS and VR are the phase voltages, whereas R and XL are the
resistance and inductive reactance per phase respectively. 78
3-Phase TL Equivalent Circuit

79
3-Phase TL Equivalent Circuit
 G: leakage losses from limited insulation capability,
leakage currents along insulators and corona losses
 L : inductance comprise the magnetic field which forms
in a current flow at the rated frequency. (Overhead line
has slightly greater inductance and underground cable,
but in same magnitude order)
 C: CE and CL (coupling capacitances) describe the
magnetic field created when a voltage at rated
frequency is applied. Capacitance in cable are greater,
due to close spacing.
80
Current Calculation
P
I
VR cos  R For single-phase

P P
I or I  For 3-phase
3VR cos R 3VL  L cos R

The I is inversely proportional to the load p.f. Hence,

low load p.f. increases the power losses
kVA
I 81
3VL  L
Example
 A 220-kV, three-phase, 60 Hz transmission line is 40 km long.
The resistance per phase is 0.15  per km and the inductance
per phase is 1.5915 mH per km. The line supplies a 381 MVA,
0.8 power factor lagging, 220 kV, three-phase load. Use the
short line model to find the following:-
(i) Voltage at the sending end
(ii) Power at the sending end
(iii) The voltage regulation, and
(iv) Efficiency

82
Solution
220
(i) 𝑉𝑟 =
3
= 127kV
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑍 ∗ 𝐼𝑟 =144.33 ∠4.93 kV
Z = (0.15+j2𝜋𝑓*1.5915m)*40 = 6+j20
𝑆
𝐼𝑟 = =1 ∠ -36.87 kA
3 ∗ V∗I

(ii) Ps = Pr + I2R = 107.6 MW

Pr = S/3*PF = 101.6 MW
I2R = 6 MW

(iii) VR = (𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑟 )/𝑉𝑟 x 100% = 13.65%

(iv) Efficiency = 94.42%

83
Two Port Networks and The
ABCD Model
 A transmission line is an example of a two-port network as
illustrated:
VS  AVR  BI R
I S  CVR  DI R
 If this network is linear, then an elementary circuit theorem
states that the relationship between the sending end and
receiving end voltage and current can be represented as
above:
 Where constant A & D are dimensionless; B has a unit of
ohms (Ω); C has a units of siemens (S)

84
Two Port Networks and The
ABCD Model
Constant Descriptions (represent)
A Effect of a change in the receiving end
voltage on the sending end voltage
D Effect of a change in the receiving end
current on the sending end current
B Effect of a change in the receiving end
current on the sending end voltage
C Effect of a change in the receiving end
voltage on the sending end current

VS  AVR  BI R
I S  CVR  DI R
85
Two Port Networks and The
ABCD Model
 For the short transmission line model, we can assume Is = Ir
 And the ABCD constant become:

VS  AVR  BI R A 1 BZ
I S  CVR  DI R C 0 D 1

VS  VR  ZI R
IS  IR
86
Medium Transmission Line
 When the length of an overhead transmission line is approx.
50 – 150 km, it is considered as a medium transmission line.
 Due to sufficient length of the line, the capacitance effects are
taken into account.
 For the purpose of calculations, the distributed capacitance of
the line is divided and lumped in the form of shunt
capacitance across the line at one or more points.
 The shunt admittance, usually due to pure capacitance is
included in the calculation of a medium length power line.
 The most commonly used model for medium transmission line
is the nominal 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙.
87
Medium Transmission Line
R jXL
ISS I IRR

VSS Y/2 Y/2 VRR

nominal- model
88
Medium Transmission Line
 The current in the receiving end capacitance is given as:
𝑌
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑉𝑅 ∗
2
 The current in the series impedance element is:
𝑌
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑅 ∗ +𝐼𝑅
2

 Y 
VS  ZI ser  VR  Z VR  I R   VR
 2 
 ZY 
  1VR  ZI R
 2 

nominal- model Kirchhoff ‘s Law

89
Medium Transmission Line
 The current flowing across source:
𝑌 𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑆 ∗ + 𝑉𝑅 ∗ + 𝐼𝑅
2 2
 By substituting:
 ZY 
VS    1VR  ZI R
 2 
 You will get:

 ZY   ZY  VS  AVR  BI R
IS  Y   1VR    1 I R
 4   2  I S  CVR  DI R

90
Medium Transmission Line
 Therefore, the constant ABCD of a medium length transmission line:
Equation 1: Equation 2:
 ZY   ZY   ZY 
VS    1VR  ZI R I S  Y   1VR    1 I R
 2   4   2 

Constant ABCD:
ZY
A 1 BZ
2 VS  AVR  BI R
 ZY  ZY I S  CVR  DI R
C  Y  1 D 1
 4  2

91
Example
A 138 kV, 200 MVA, 60 Hz, three-phase, power transmission line is 100 km
long, and has the following characteristics:
r = 0.103 Ω/km x = 0.525 Ω/km y = 3.3 × 10 -6 S/km
(a) What is per phase series impedance and shunt admittance of this
transmission line?
(b) Should it be modeled as a short, medium, or long transmission line?
(c) Calculate the ABCD constants of this transmission line.
(d) Calculate the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated voltage and
apparent power at 0.90 PF lagging.
(e) What is the voltage regulation of the transmission line for the conditions in
(d)?
(f) What is the efficiency of the transmission line for the conditions in (d)?

92
Ans:
(a) Z = (0.103 + j 0.525 )(100) = 10.3 + j52.5
Y = (j3.3 x 10-6)(100) = j0.00033S
(b) Medium
(c) A = 0.9913 <0.1, B = Z = 53.5 <78.9 ohm
C = 3.286 x 10-4 < 90 S
D = 0.9913 <0.1
(d) Vs = Avr +B Ir = 111.8 <18.75
Ir = S/sqrt93)Vl = 837 <-25.8 A
Vr = 79.67<0 kV
Is=CVr+Dir=818.7<-24.05 A
(e) 40.3%
(f) Pout=SPF=180MW
Pin = 3VIcos42.8=201.5MW
89.3%

93
Reactive Power Compensation
 In an electric utility network, it is desirable to regulate the
voltage within its statutory limit. Most utilities attempt to
maintain the voltage deviation within the following range:

94
Reactive Power Compensation
 The load on the power system fluctuates and result in voltages
outside of their acceptable limits.
 In view of the facts that the internal impedance of the AC system
seen by the load is mainly inductive (the transmission and
distribution lines, transformers, generators, etc. are mainly inductive
at the line frequency 50Hz), it is the reactive power change in the
load that has the most adverse effect on the voltage regulation.
 Capacitor banks can be used for the application in voltage
regulation and power factor correction.

95
Reactive Power Compensation
 These capacitor banks can be switched on and off by
using contactors to compensate the slow changes in the
reactive power of the load in order to keep the power
factor as close to unity as possible.
 This in turn to reduces the power losses (I2R) in the
various equipment within an AC system.

96