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Digestive System

- with the assistance of


the circulatory system,
is a complex set of
organs, glands, and
ducts that work
together to
transform food into
nutrients for cells.
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

1. Ingestion - consumption of solid or liquid food,


usually through mouth.
2. Digestion - the breakdown of large organic
molecules into smaller molecules that can be
absorbed.
3. Absorption- movement of molecules out of
digestive system
4. Elimination- removal of undigested material.
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system is consist of digestive tract or
gastrointestinal tract and specific associated organs.
The specific portion of the digestive tract includes:
1. Oral cavity
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small and Large intestines
6. Anus
The specific associated organs of the
digestive system:

1. Salivary Glands
2. Liver
3. Pancreas
Inner lining of digestive
tract
-protective barrier to those indigestible
and harmful materials while allowing for the
specific absorption of nutrient across the
wall of the digestive tract.
PARTS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT THAT ARE
SPECIALIZED FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS:

Oral cavity and Esophagus

- lines in stratified epithelium


- protects them from the abrasion
of chewing and swallowing

Stomach and Intestine

- lines in columnar epithelium


- absorption of nutrients and
secretion of digestive fluids
4 Major Tunics of Digestive Tract:

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa or Adventitia
Mucosa
- inner most tunic
- consist of 3 layers:

1. Inner Mucous Epithelium


2. Lamina Propria
- loose connective tissue
3. Muscularis mucose
- thin outer layer of smooth
muscle
Submucosa
- outside the mucosa
- thick layer of loose connective
tissue containing nerves,
blood vesselsand small glands

An intensive network of nerve cell processes


forms a plexus within the submucosa.
The submucosa and mucosa of the
stomach are thrown into large fold
called Rugae when the stomach is
empty.

The mucosal surface forms


numerous tubelike gastric pits which are
the openings for gastric glands.
Muscularis
In most part of digestive
tract, it consists if an inner
layer of circular smooth
muscle and an outer layer of
longitudinal smooth muscle.

Nerve plexuses of submucosa and


muscularis compose of enteric nervous system.
Serosa
-outermost layer of digestive
tract

- Consist of peritoneum,
which is a smooth epithelial
layer, and its underlying
connective tissue
Adventitia
- region of digestive tract not covered
by peritoneum
- continuous with the surrounding
connective tissue
PERITONEUM
The walls of the abdominal cavity and abdominal
organs are associated with ta serous membrane.

The serous membrane is called the peritoneum.


• Visceral peritoneum

- the serous membrane


that covers the organs

• Parietal peritoneum

- serous membrane that


lines the wall of the
abdominal cavity
Mesenteries
Many of the organs on the abdominal
cavity are held in place by connective tissue
called mesenteries.

- provide route for blood vessel and nerve from


abdominal wall to the organs.
- consist of 2 layers of serous membranes within
a thin layer if loose connective tissue

mesentery proper - mesentery associated with


the small intestine
lesser omentum
- mesentery connecting the lesser curvature
of the stomach to the liver and diaphragm

greater omentum
- mesentery connecting the greater curvature
of the stomach to the transverse colon and
posterior body wall
- long, double fold of mesentery that extends
inferiorly from the stomach before looping
back to the transverse color to create a cavity
or pocket called omental bursa.
Retroperitoneal
- abdominal organs that have no mesenteries
- lies along the abdominal wall and includes:

• Duodenum
• Pancreas
• Ascending colon
• Descending colon
• Rectum
• Kidneys
• Adrenal glands
• Urinary bladder
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX,
ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of the Oral
Cavity
Oral cavity or mouth
- first part of the digestive tract
- bounded by the lips and cheeks and contains the
teeth and tongue
Lips
- are muscular structures formed mostly by the
orbicularis oris muscle
- outer surface is covered by the skin
The keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin becomes
thin at the margin of the lips.
At Internal margin of the lips, the epithelium is continuous
with moist squamous epithelium io the mucosa in the oral cavity.
Cheeks
- form the lateral walls of the oral cavity.
-Located within the cheeks are the buccinator
muscles which flatten the cheeks against the teeth.

Mastication or Chewing
- begins the process of mechanical digestion
which breaks down large food particles into
smaller ones.

Lips and cheeks move the food around within the oral cavity
and hold the food in place while the teeth crush or tear it.
The cheeks also help form words during the speech process.
Tongue
- large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral cavity
- The major attachment of the tongue is in the posterior
part of the oral cavity
- The anterior part of the tongue is relatively free, except for
an anterior attachment to the floor of the mouth by a thin
fold of tissue called frenulum
- The anterior 2/3 is covered by papillae, some of which
contain taste buds
Tongue
- The posterior 1/3 is devoid of papillae and had
only a few scattered taste buds.
- The posterior does contain a large amount of
lymphatic tissue, which help form the lingual
tonsil.
- Moves food in the mouth in cooperation with
lips and cheeks
- Hold the food in place during mastication
- Major sensory organ for taste as well as major
organ for speech
TEETH
Teeth
There are 32 teeth in
the normal adult mouth,
located in the mandible and
maxillae.
Teeth can be divided into
4 quadrants:
• Right upper
• Left upper
• Right lower
• Left lower
In adults, each quadrant contains:
• One central and one lateral incisor
• First and second premolars
• First, second and third molars

Wisdom teeth
- third molar because they usually appear in the
late teens or early twenties, when the person is old
enough to have acquired some degree of wisdom.
Permanent teeth:
Secondary teeth
- teeth of adult
- replacements for 20
primary teeth/ deciduous
teeth/ milk teeth/ baby teeth
which are lost during
childhood.
Each tooth consists of 3
regions:

• Crown - one or more


cusps; most visible portion
of the tooth
• Neck - small region
between the crown and
the root
• Root - largest region of
tooth and anchors it in the
jawbone

Within the center of the tooth is the pulp


cavity.
Pulp cavity

- filled with blood vessels,


nerves, and connective tissue
called pulp.
- surrounded by a living,
cellular calcified tissue called
the dentin
Dentin of the tooth crown is covered by extremely
hard, acellular substance called enamel which protects the
tooth against abrasion and acids produced by bacteria on
the mouth.
ENAMEL

-extremley hard ACELLULAR


SUBSTANCE
-the dentin of the tooth crown is
covered by the enamel
-protects the tooth against abrasion
and acids produced by bacteria in the
mouth
Cementum
- covers the surface of the
dentin in the root
- helps anchor the tooth and
jaw

The teeth are held in place within Alveoli


along the alveolar processes of the mandible
and maxillae.
Alveolar processes
- covered by dense fibrous connective tissue
and moist stratified squamous epithelium
referred to as gingiva.

Periodontal ligaments
- secure the teeth in the alveoli by
embedding into the cementum
Dental Caries
- tooth decay
- result of breakdown of enamel by acids
produced by bacteria on the tooth surface
Enamel is non living and cannot repair itself.

Dental filling is necessary to prevent further


damage.
Periodontal disease
- inflammation and degeneration of the most
periodontal ligaments, gingiva and alveolar
bone.
- most common cause of tooth loss in adults
- it occurs in the tooth, in the bone or in the
surrounding soft tissues.
- can cause enlargement of the superior
cervical lymph nodes
Palate
roof of the oral cavity

- separated the oral cavity from the nasal cavity


- prevent food from passing into the nasal cavity
during chewing and swallowing

Consist of two parts:

• Hard palate - anterior part that contains bone


• Soft palate - posterior part that consists of skeletal
muscle and connective tissue

Uvula is a posterior extension of the soft palate.


Tonsils
- located in the lateral posterior walls of the
oral cavity in the nasopharynx
- and in the posterior surface of the tongue
SALIVARY GLANDS
- compound alveolar gland
- have branching ducts with
clusters of alveoli, resembling
grapes, at the ends of the
duct

3 major pairs of salivary


glands:

1. Parotid glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
Parotid Glands
- the largest of the salivary glands
- serous glands located just anterior
to each ear

Parotid Ducts
- enter the oral cavity adjacent to the
second upper molars
Mumps
- an inflammation of the parotid gland cause
by viral infection
- The inflamed parotid glands become
swollen, often making the cheeks quite large
- Can also infect other structured
- Mumps in an adult male may involve the
testes and can result in sterility.
Submandibular glands
- produce more serous than mucous secretions
- each gland can be felt as a soft lump along the
inferior border of the mandible
The Submandibular ducts open into the oral cavity ok
each side of the frenulum of the tongue.

Sublingual Glands
-the smallest if the three paired salivary glands,
produce primarily mucous secretions.
-each sublingual gland has 10-12 small ducts opening
onto the floor of the cavity
Saliva
- produced in salivary gland
- mixture of serous and mucous fluids and has multiple roles
- a versatile fluid
- It helps keep the oral cavity moist and contains enzymes
that begin the process of digestion
- secreted at the rate of approximately 1 liter (L) per day
- has protective functions
- It prevents bacterial infections in the mouth by washing
the oral cavity with mildly antibacterial enzyme called
lysozyome
- It neutralize the pH in the mouth, which reduces the
harmful effects of bacterial acid on tooth enamel
Salivary Amylase
- breaks down starch
- break down the covalent bonds between glucose
molecules in starch and other polysaccharides.
- this porduces disaccharides such as maltose and
isomaltose

Maltose and Isomaltose have sweet taste thus the digestion of


polysaccharides by salivary amylase enhances the sweet taste
of food.

The serous part of saliva contains a digestive enzyme


called Salivary Amylase.
Salivary Gland Secretion
- regulated primarily by the autonomic nervous
system, with parasympathetic stimulation being the
most important.
- increase in response to a variety of stimuli, such
as tactile stimulation in the oral cavity and certain
tastes, especially sour

Parasympathetic stimulation increases the mucous


content of saliva. When a person becomes frightened and
the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
is stimulated, the person may have a dry mouth with thick
mucus.
Lack of salivary gland secretion
increase the chance of ulceration and
infection of the oral mucosa and
caries formation in the teeth.
MASTICATION
MASTICATION
- break large food particles into many small ones, which
have a much larger total surface area than a few large
particles would have
- it increases the efficiency of digestion

Food taken in the mouth is chewed or masticated by


the teeth.

• Incisors and canines - primarily cut tear food


• Premolars and molars - primarily crush and
grind
PHARYNX
- throat
- connects the mouth with esophagus

3 parts of Pharynx:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx

Normally, only the oropharynx and the


laryngopharynx carry food to the esophagus.
The posterior wall of the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx are formed by the superior, middle
and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles.
ESOPHAGUS
- muscular tube, lined with moist stratified squamous
epithelium, the extends from the pharynx to the
stomach
- it is 25 centimeters (cm) long and lies anterior to the
vertebrae and posterior to the trachea within the
mediastinum.
- the upper 2/3 has smooth muscle in its wall
- It passes through the diaphragm and ends at the
stomach
- transport food from the pharynx to the stomach
- numerous mucous gland produces a thick, lubricating
mucus that coats the inner surface
UPPER ANS LOWER ESOPHAGEAL
SPHINCTERS

-located on the upper and lower ends of


esophagus respectively
- regulate the movement of food into and
outside the esphagus
SWALLOWING
deglutition

Divided into 3 phases:

1. Voluntary phase
2. Pharyngeal phase
3. Esophageal phase
voluntary phase
- a bolus, or mass of food, is formed un the mouth
- the tongue pushes the bolus against the hard palate
- this forces the bolus toward the posterior part of the mouth and
into the oropharynx

pharyngeal phase
- controlled by reflex
- Initiated when bolus of good stimulated receptors in the
oropharynx to elevate the soft palate, closing off the nasopharynx

The pharynx elevates to receive the bolus of food from the


mouth
The 3 Pharyngeal constrictor muscles
contract in succession, forcing the food
through the pharynx. As the food passes
through the pharynx, the vestibular and vocal
folds close, and the EPIGLOTTIS is tipped
posteriorly, so that the opening into the larynx
is covered.

These movements prevent food from


passing into the larynx.
esophageal phase
- responsible for moving food from the pharynx
to the stomach
Peristaltic waves - muscular contraction of the
esophagus

Wave of relaxation of the esophageal muscle


precedes the bolus of good down the esophagus.

Wave of strong contraction of the circular


muscle follows and propel the bolus through the
esophagus.
ANATOMY OF STOMACH
Stomach

- primarily houses food for mixing with


hydrochloric acid and other secretions
- an enlargement segment of the digestive
tract in the left superior part of the
abdomen
lined with simple columnar epithelium
Gastroesophageal opening
- the opening from the esophagus into the
stomach

Cardiac region
- a stomach region around the gastroesophageal
opening
Fundus
- the most superior part of the stomach

Body
- the largest part of the stomach
- turns to the right, forming a greater and lesser
curvature

Pyloric opening
- is the opening into the small intestine
- surrounded by a relatively thick ring if smooth muscle
called Pyloric Sphincter

Pyloric region
- region of the stomach near the pyloric opening
Muscularis layer of the stomach

- different from the other regions of the


digestive tract in that it consist of:

3 layers:
1. Outer longitudinal layer
2. Middle circular layer
3. Inner oblique layer

These layers produce churning action in


stomach, important in the digestive process.
Epithelial Cell
The epithelial cell of the stomach
can be divided into 5 groups.

First group:
• Surface mucous cells
- first group of epithelial cell on the inner
surface of the stomach and lining the
gastric pits, which produces mucus

mucus coats - protects the stomach lining.


The 4 remaining groups of epithelial cells are located in
the gastric glands. The cells of the gastric glands include:

1. Mucous neck cells - produce


mucus
2. Parietal cells - produce
hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor
3. Endocrine cells - which
produce regulatory chemicals

4.Chief cells - produce


pepsinogen, a precursor of the
protein-digesting enzyme pepsin
SECRETION OF THE STOMACH
As food enters the stomach, the food mixed
with stomach secretions to become a
semifluid mixture called CHYME.

Although some digestion occurs in the


stomach, that is not its principal function.
Stomach secretion from the gastric
glands include:

• Hydrochloric acid
• Pepsin
• Mucus
• Intrinsic factor
Hydrochloric acid
- produces a pH of about 2.0 un the
stomach
-kills microorganism and activated the
enzyme, pepsin.

Pepsin
- converted from its inactive form,
pepsinogen
- breaks covalent bond of protein to form
smaller peptide chains
- Exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at a
Mucus
- form a thick layer, which lubricates the epithelial
cells of the stomach wall and protects them from
the damaging effect of the acidic chyme and
pepsin.
- irritation of the stomach mucosa stimulates the
secretion of a greater volume of mucus
Intrinsic factor
- binds with vitamin B12 and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine

Vitamin B12 is important in deoxyribonucleic


acid (DNA) synthesis and in red blood cell
HEART BURN or Gastritis
- a painful or burning sensation in the chest
usually associated with an increase in gastric acid
secretion and/or a back-flush of acidic chyme
into the esophagus.

Cases of heart burn:


• over eating
• eating fatty foods
• lying down immediately after a meal
• consuming too much alcohol or caffeine
• smoking
• wearing extremely tight clothing
Medication can relieve the symptoms of
heart burn by blocking gastric acid secretion.

Some medication block histamine


stimulation of acid release from a parietal cells,
while other medications block the proton pump
in parietal cells that generates gastric acids.
.
Antacids neutralize acids already secreted
into the stomach.
REGULATION OF STOMACH
SECRETION IS DIVIDED INTO THREE
PHASES:
- CEPHALIC
- GASTRIC
- INTESTINAL
Gastric Phase
The greatest volume of gastric secretions is
produced during the gastric phase of gastric
regulation. The presence of food in the
stomach initiates the gastric phase . The
primary stimuli are distention of the stomach
and the presence of amino acids and peptides
in the stomach.
Intestinal phase
The entrance of acidic stomach contents into the
duodenum of the small intestine controls the intestinal phase of
gastric regulation.
The presence of chyme in the duodenum activates both
neural and hormonal mechanisms .Acidic solutions in the
duodenum cause the release of the hormone secretin into the
circulatory system. Secretin inhibits gastric secretion by inhibiting
both parietal and chief cells. Acidic solutions also initiate a local
enteric reflex , which inhibits gastric secretions.

Two hormones:
• gastric inhibitory polypeptide
• cholecystokinin
MOVEMENTS OF THE
STOMACH
Ingested food is thoroughly mixed with the
secretions of the stomach glands to form chyme. This
mixing is accomplished by gentle mixing waves , which
are peristaltic-like contractions that occur about every 20
seconds and proceed from the body toward the pyloric
sphincter to mix the ingested material with the secretions
of the stomach. Peristaltic waves occur less frequently, are
significantly more powerful than mixing waves ,and force
the chyme near the periphery of the stomach toward the
pyloric sphincter.
The more solid material near the center of the
stomach is pushed superiorly toward the cardiac region
for further digestion (24.14).Roughly 80% of the
contractions are mixing waves, and 20% are peristaltic
waves.
MIXING OF STOMACH
CONTENTS

MIXING WAVES which are peristaltic-like


contractions that occur about every 20 seconds
and proceed from the body toward the pyloric
sphincter to mix the ingested material with the
secretions of the stomach.

PERISTALTIC WAVES occur less frequently, are


significantly more powerful than mixing waves,
and force the chyme near the periphery of the
stomach toward the pyloric sphincter
STOMACH EMPTYING

Each peristaltic contraction is sufficiently


strong to force a small amount of chyme
through the pyloric opening and into the
duodenum. The peristaltic contractions
responsible for movement of chyme
through the partially closed pyloric opening
are called the pyloric pump.
SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum,
the jejunum,and the ileum. The entire small intestine is
about 6 m long (range:4.6–9 m).
The duodenum is about 25cm long (the term duodenum
means 12,suggesting that it is 12inches long).
The jejunum, constituting about two-fifths of the total
length of the small intestine ,is about 2.5 m long.

Ileum, constituting three-fifths of the small intestine, is


about 3.5m long. Two major accessory glands, the liver
and the pancreas, are associated with the duodenum
Two small mounds are within the duodenum about twothirds of
the way down the descending part:
the major duodenal papilla and the lesser duodenal papilla.

At the major papilla, the common bile duct and pancreatic duct
join to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla (Vater’s ampulla),
which empties into the duodenum. A smooth muscle sphincter,
the hepatopancreatic ampullar sphincter (sphincter of Oddi)
regulates the opening of the ampulla. An accessory pancreatic
duct, present in most people, opens at the tip of the lesser
duodenal papilla.
The mucosa and submucosa form a series of folds
called the circular folds, or plicae circulares, which
run perpendicular to the long axis of the digestive
tract.
Tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosa form
numerous villi (shaggy hair), which are 0.5 ı –1.5
mm in length.
Each villus is covered by simple columnar
epithelium and contains a blood capillary network
and a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal.
Most of the cells that make up the surface
of the villi have numerous cy882 Part 4
Regulations and Maintenance cytoplasmic
extensions (about 1 m long) called
microvilli, which further increase the
surface area.

brush border - The combined microvilli


on the entire epithelial surface
THE MUCOSA OF THE DUODENUM IS SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM WITH
FOUR MAJOR CELL TYPES:

Absorptive cells are cells with microvilli, which produce


digestive enzymes and absorb digested food;
Goblet cells which produce a protective mucus;
Granular cells (Paneth’s cells), which may help protect the
intestinal epithelium from bacteria; and
Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones. The
epithelial cells are produced within tubular invaginations
of the mucosa, called intestinal glands (crypts of
Lieberkühn), at the base of the villi. The absorptive and
goblet cells migrate from the intestinal glands to cover
the surface of the villi and eventually are shed from its tip.
JEJUNUM AND
ILEUM
The duodenum and jejunum are the
major sites of nutrient absorption, although
some absorption occurs in the ileum.
Lymph nodules called Peyer’s patches are
numerous in the mucosa and submucosa of
the ileum.
The junction between the ileum and
the large intestine is the ileocecal junction.
It has a ring of smooth muscle, the ileocecal
sphincter, and a one-way ileocecal valve.
Secretions of the Small Intestine
Enzymes of the intestinal mucosa are bound to the
membranes of the absorptive cell microvilli. These surface-
bound enzymes include disaccharidases, which break
disaccharides down to monosaccharides
Peptidases, which hydrolyze the peptide bonds
between small amino acid chains; and nucleases, which break
down nucleic acids
Although these enzymes are not secreted into the
intestine, they influence the digestive process significantly,
and the large surface area of the intestinal epithelium brings
these enzymes into contact with the intestinal contents.
Small molecules, which are breakdown products of
digestion, are absorbed through the microvilli and enter the
circulatory or lymphatic systems.
Movement in the Small Intestine

Segmental contractions mix the


intestinal contents.

Peristaltic contractions propel the


intestinal contents along the digestive
tract. A few peristaltic contractions
may proceed the entire length of the
intestine.
The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture
between the ileum and the large intestine
remains mildly contracted most of the
time, but peristaltic waves reaching it from
the small intestine cause it to relax and
allow movement of chyme from the small
intestine into the cecum
LIVER
The liver is the largest internal
organ of the body, weighing about
1.36 kg (3 pounds), and it is in the
right-upper quadrant of the
abdomen, tucked against the
inferior surface of the diaphragm.
ANATOMY OF LIVER
A porta (gate) is on the inferior surface of the
liver, where the various vessels, ducts, and nerves enter
and exit the liver.

The liver consists of two major lobes, left and


right, and two minor lobes, caudate and quadrate.

The hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery, and a


small hepatic nerve plexus enter the liver through the
porta.

The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a


single common hepatic duct.
A connective tissue capsule and visceral peritoneum
cover the liver, except for the bare area, which is a small
area on the diaphragmatic surface surrounded by the
coronary ligament.
The connective tissue septa divide the liver into
hexagon shaped lobules with a portal triad at each
corner. The triads are so named because three vessels—
the hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, and hepatic
duct—are commonly located in them.
A central vein is in the center of each lobule. Central
veins unite to form hepatic veins, which exit the liver on
its posterior and superior surfaces and empty into the
inferior vena cava
Hepatic cords
- radiate out from the central vein of each lobule like
the spokes of a wheel.
- are composed of hepatocytes, the functional cells of
the liver.
- The spaces between the hepatic cords are blood
channels called hepatic sinusoids
- The sinusoids are lined with a very thin, irregular
squamous endothelium consisting of two cell
populations:
- extremely thin, sparse endothelial cells and hepatic
phagocytic cells (Kupffer cells). A cleft like lumen, the
bile canaliculus little canal, lies between the cells within
each cord
Hepatocytes have six major functions :

1) bile production
2) storage
3) interconversion of nutrients
4) detoxification
5) phagocytosis
6) synthesis of blood components
FUNCTION OF THE LIVER
FUNCTION EXPLANATION

DIGESTION Bile neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fat digestion.

EXCRETION Bile contains excretory products, such as cholesterol , fats


and bile pigments that result from hemoglobin
breakdown.
NUTRIENT STORAGE Liver cells remove sugar from the blood and store it in the
glycogen , they also store fat,vitamins (A,D,B,E,K) copper
and Iron.
NUTRIENT Liver cells convert some nutrients into others
CONVERSION
DETOXIFICATION OF Liver cells remove ammonia from the blood and convert it
HARMFUL CHEMICALS to urea, which is eliminated in the urine, others substances
are detoxified and secreted in the bile or excreted in the
urine.
SYNTHESIS OF NEW The liver synthesizes blood proteins such as albumin,
MOLECULES fibrinogen, globulins and clotting factors.
Bile Production
The liver produces and secretes about 600–1000 mL of
bile each day. Bile contains no digestive enzymes, but
it plays a role in digestion because it neutralizes and
dilutes stomach acid and emulsifies fats

Storage
Hepatocytes can remove sugar from the blood and
store it in the form of glycogen. They can also store fat,
vitamins (A, B, D, E, and K), copper, and iron.
Nutrient Interconversion
Interconversion of nutrients is another important function
of the liver. Ingested nutrients are not always in the
proportion needed by the tissues. If this is the case, the
liver can convert some nutrients into others.

DETOXIFICATION
It detoxifies many substances by altering their structure to
make them less toxic or make their elimination easier.

Synthesis
The liver can also produce its own unique new
compounds. It produces many blood proteins, such as
albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, and clotting
factors, which are released into the circulation
PANCREAS
The pancreas is a complex organ composed
of both endocrine and exocrine tissues that
perform several functions.

The pancreas consists of a head, located


within the curvature of the duodenum, a
body, and a tail, which extends to the
spleen
The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans).

The islet cells produce insulin and glucagon,


which are very important in controlling blood levels of
nutrients, such as glucose and amino acids, and
somatostatin, which regulates insulin and glucagon
secretion and may inhibit growth hormone secretion.
The exocrine part of the pancreas is a
compound acinar gland . The ACINI produce
digestive enzymes.

Clusters of acini form lobules that are


separated by thin septa. Lobules are connected by
small intercalated ducts to interlobular ducts, which
leave the lobules to join interlobular ducts between
the lobules. The interlobular ducts attach to the
main pancreatic duct, which joins the common bile
duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
FUNCTIONS OF
THE PANCREAS
PANCREATIC ENZYMES

• The exocrine secretions of the


pancreas include bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-), and digestive
enzymes.
• Important in digesting all major
classes of food.
The major protein-digesting enzymes are:

• Trypsin
• Chymotrypsin
• Carboxypeptidase
PANCREATIC AMYLASE- continues the
polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral
cavity.
LIPASE- a lipid-digesting enzyme.
-are stored in adipose tissue and in the
liver, both of which release the lipids into the
blood when energy sources are needed
elsewhere in the body.
NUCLEASES- are enzymes that degrade DNA and
RNA to their component nucleotides.
Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum and
Pancreas
LARGE INTESTINE
LARGE INTESTINE:

• Cecum

• Colon

• Rectum

• Anal canal
LARGE INTESTINE: CECUM
• is the proximal end of the large intestine
where it joints with the small intestine at
the ileocecal junctions
• located in the right lower quadrant of the
abdomen near the iliac fossa.
• is a sac that extends inferiorly about 6 cm
past the ileocecal junction.
APPENDIX
attached to the cecum is a tube
9 cm long.

APPENDICITIS- is an
inflammation of the appendix
that usually occurs because of
an obstraction.
LARGE INTESTINE: COLON
• is about 1.5-1.8 m long and
consists of four parts:
Four parts:
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon
• Descending colon
• Sigmoid colon
COLON: ASCENDING

• extends superiorly from the


cecum to the right colic
flexure, near the liver, where it
turn to the left.
COLON: TRANSVERSE

• extends from the right colic


flexure to the left colic flexure
near the spleen, where the
colon turns inferiorly
COLON: DESCENDING

• extends from the left colic


flexure to the pelvis, where it
becomes the sigmoid colon.
COLON: SIGMOID

• forms an S-shaped tube that


extends medially and then
inferiorly into the pelvic cavity
and ends at the rectum.
CRYPTS- the mucosal lining of the
colon contains numerous straight,
tubular glands which contain many
mucus-producing goblet cells.

TENIAE COLI –the longitudinal


smooth muscle layer of the colon
does not completely envelop the
intestinal wall but forms three bands.
LARGE INTESTINE: RECTUM
• is a straight, muscular tube that begins at
the termination of the sigmoid colon and
ends at the anal canal.

MUSCULAR TUNIC- is composed of smooth


muscle and is relatively thick in the rectum
compared to the rest of the digestive tract.
LARGE INTESTINE: ANAL CANAL

• the last 2-3 cm of the digestive


tract
• It begins at the inferior end of
the rectum and ends at the anus
(external digestive tract
opening).
LARGE INTESTINE: ANAL CANAL

INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER- the


smooth muscles layer of the canal is even
thicker than that of the rectum.
EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER- the inferior
end of the anal canal is formed by
skeletal muscle.
HEMORRHOIDS- are enlarge or inflamed
rectal, or hemorhoidal, veins that supply
the anal canal.
- cause pain, itching, and/or
bleeding around the anus.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE
INTESTINE
Normally, 18-24 hours are required
for material to pass through the large
intestine, 3-5 hours required for
chyme.
Control of Pancreatic
Secretion
Large Intestine
CHYME- is converted to feces in the
colon.

MASS MOVEMENTS- every 8-12 hours,


large parts of the colon undergo several
strong contractions, which propel the
colon contents a considerable distance
toward the anus.

Defection Reflex- occurs when feces


distend the rectal wall.
DIGESTION,
ABSORPTION,
AND
TRANSPORT
DIGESTION
- is the breakdown of food to molecules
that are small enough to be absorbed
into the blood.

Two types of digestion:


• Mechanical digestion
• Chemical digestion
DIGESTION:
MECHANICAL
• breaks large food particles into
smaller ones.
DIGESTION:
CHEMICAL
- uses enzymes to break covalent
chemical bonds in organic
molecules.
ABSORPTION
- begins in the stomach, where some small,
lipid-soluble molecules, such as alcohol and
aspirin, can diffuse through the stomach
epithelium in the blood.
- Most absorption occurs in the duodenum
and jejunum, although some occurs in the
ileum.
TRANSPORT
- requires carrier molecules and includes
facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active
transport.
CARBOHYDRATES
• consist primarily of starches, cellulose,
sucrose (table sugar), and small amounts
of fructose (fruit sugar) and lactose (milk
sugar)

POLYSACCHARIDES
• are large carbohydrates, such as starches,
cellulose, and glycogen, that consist of
many sugar linked by chemical bonds
POLYSACCHARIDES:
STARCH
-is an energy-storage molecule
in plants.
POLYSACCHARIDES:
GLYCOGEN
- is an energy-storage molecule
in animals and is contained in
muscle and in the liver.
POLYSACCHARIDES:
CELLULOSE
- is a polysaccharide that is not
digested but is important for
providing fiber in the diet.
SALIVARY AMYLASE
- begins the digestion of carbohydrates in
the mouth.

PANCREATIC AMYLASE
- enters the duodenum and continues the
digestion of carbohydrates, so that
absorption can begin.
DISACCHARIDASES
• a group of enzymes
• bound to the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium

Lactase
-is made at birth; however, in 5-15% of the European-
America population and 80-90% of the African-American
and Asian-American populations, lactase synthesis sharply
declines 3-4 years after weaning.

MONOSACCHARIDES
- absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells
LIPID
• insoluble or only slightly soluble in water.
• Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat-
soluble vitamins.
TRIGLYCERIDES
• are the most common type of lipid.
Three fatty acids bound to glycerol:
• Saturated- fatty acids have only single bond between
carbons.
• Unsaturated- fatty acids have double bonds between
carbons.
• Monounsaturated- fats have one double bond and
polyunsaturated fats have more than one double bond
between carbons in their fatty acids.
LIPASE
• secreted by the pancreas, digests lipid
molecules
• however, the lipase alone cannot efficiently
digest lipids.

EMULSIFICATION
• a key step in lipid digestion which bile salts
transform large lipid droplets into much
smaller lipud droplets.
MONOSACCHARIDE TRANSPORT
LIPID TRANSPORT
Once lipids are digested in the intestine,
bile salts aggregate around the small
droplets of digested lipids to form
micelles
• Hydrophobic- water-fearing
-ends of the bile salts are direct
toward the lipid particles.
• Hydrophilic- water-loving
-ends are directed outward,
toward the water environment.
CHYLOMICRONS
• the package lipid-protein complexes, or
lipoproteins
• Leave the epithelial cells via exocytosis and enter
the lacteals, lymphatic capillaries within the
intestinal villi.
CHYLE
• lymph containing large amounts of absorbed
lipid

Three possible fates for lipids in the liver:


1.) the lipids can be stored
2.) the lipids can be converted into other molecules
PROTEINS
• chains of amino acids
• are found in most of the plant and animal
product we eat.
PEPSIN
• is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by
the stomach
• breaks down large protein to smaller
• digests only about 10-20% of the total
ingested protein
ENZYMES
• are synthesized by the pancreas in an
inactive
• once they are in the small intestine, these
enzymes are activated.
PEPTIDASES
• break down small peptides into
tripeptides (three amino acids), dipeptides
(two amino acids) or single amino acids
Lipoproteins
AMINO ACID TRANSPORT
AMINO ACIDS
• are actively transported into the various
cells of the body
• most amino acids are used as building
blocks to form new proteins but some
may be metabolize, with a portion of
the released energy used to produce
ATP.
WATER and MINERALS
Approximately 9 L of water enter the
digestive tract each day. We ingest about 2 L in
food and drink, and the remaining 7 L are from
digestive secretions. Approximately 92% of
that water is absorbed in the small intestine,
about 7% is absorbed in the large intestine,
and about 1% leaves the body in the feces.
Water can move in either direction by osmosis
across the wall of the digestive tract. The
direction of water movement is determined by
osmotic
Fluid Volumes in the Digestive Tract

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