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Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
1. Salivary Glands
2. Liver
3. Pancreas
Inner lining of digestive
tract
-protective barrier to those indigestible
and harmful materials while allowing for the
specific absorption of nutrient across the
wall of the digestive tract.
PARTS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT THAT ARE
SPECIALIZED FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS:
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa or Adventitia
Mucosa
- inner most tunic
- consist of 3 layers:
- Consist of peritoneum,
which is a smooth epithelial
layer, and its underlying
connective tissue
Adventitia
- region of digestive tract not covered
by peritoneum
- continuous with the surrounding
connective tissue
PERITONEUM
The walls of the abdominal cavity and abdominal
organs are associated with ta serous membrane.
• Parietal peritoneum
greater omentum
- mesentery connecting the greater curvature
of the stomach to the transverse colon and
posterior body wall
- long, double fold of mesentery that extends
inferiorly from the stomach before looping
back to the transverse color to create a cavity
or pocket called omental bursa.
Retroperitoneal
- abdominal organs that have no mesenteries
- lies along the abdominal wall and includes:
• Duodenum
• Pancreas
• Ascending colon
• Descending colon
• Rectum
• Kidneys
• Adrenal glands
• Urinary bladder
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX,
ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of the Oral
Cavity
Oral cavity or mouth
- first part of the digestive tract
- bounded by the lips and cheeks and contains the
teeth and tongue
Lips
- are muscular structures formed mostly by the
orbicularis oris muscle
- outer surface is covered by the skin
The keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin becomes
thin at the margin of the lips.
At Internal margin of the lips, the epithelium is continuous
with moist squamous epithelium io the mucosa in the oral cavity.
Cheeks
- form the lateral walls of the oral cavity.
-Located within the cheeks are the buccinator
muscles which flatten the cheeks against the teeth.
Mastication or Chewing
- begins the process of mechanical digestion
which breaks down large food particles into
smaller ones.
Lips and cheeks move the food around within the oral cavity
and hold the food in place while the teeth crush or tear it.
The cheeks also help form words during the speech process.
Tongue
- large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral cavity
- The major attachment of the tongue is in the posterior
part of the oral cavity
- The anterior part of the tongue is relatively free, except for
an anterior attachment to the floor of the mouth by a thin
fold of tissue called frenulum
- The anterior 2/3 is covered by papillae, some of which
contain taste buds
Tongue
- The posterior 1/3 is devoid of papillae and had
only a few scattered taste buds.
- The posterior does contain a large amount of
lymphatic tissue, which help form the lingual
tonsil.
- Moves food in the mouth in cooperation with
lips and cheeks
- Hold the food in place during mastication
- Major sensory organ for taste as well as major
organ for speech
TEETH
Teeth
There are 32 teeth in
the normal adult mouth,
located in the mandible and
maxillae.
Teeth can be divided into
4 quadrants:
• Right upper
• Left upper
• Right lower
• Left lower
In adults, each quadrant contains:
• One central and one lateral incisor
• First and second premolars
• First, second and third molars
Wisdom teeth
- third molar because they usually appear in the
late teens or early twenties, when the person is old
enough to have acquired some degree of wisdom.
Permanent teeth:
Secondary teeth
- teeth of adult
- replacements for 20
primary teeth/ deciduous
teeth/ milk teeth/ baby teeth
which are lost during
childhood.
Each tooth consists of 3
regions:
Periodontal ligaments
- secure the teeth in the alveoli by
embedding into the cementum
Dental Caries
- tooth decay
- result of breakdown of enamel by acids
produced by bacteria on the tooth surface
Enamel is non living and cannot repair itself.
1. Parotid glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
Parotid Glands
- the largest of the salivary glands
- serous glands located just anterior
to each ear
Parotid Ducts
- enter the oral cavity adjacent to the
second upper molars
Mumps
- an inflammation of the parotid gland cause
by viral infection
- The inflamed parotid glands become
swollen, often making the cheeks quite large
- Can also infect other structured
- Mumps in an adult male may involve the
testes and can result in sterility.
Submandibular glands
- produce more serous than mucous secretions
- each gland can be felt as a soft lump along the
inferior border of the mandible
The Submandibular ducts open into the oral cavity ok
each side of the frenulum of the tongue.
Sublingual Glands
-the smallest if the three paired salivary glands,
produce primarily mucous secretions.
-each sublingual gland has 10-12 small ducts opening
onto the floor of the cavity
Saliva
- produced in salivary gland
- mixture of serous and mucous fluids and has multiple roles
- a versatile fluid
- It helps keep the oral cavity moist and contains enzymes
that begin the process of digestion
- secreted at the rate of approximately 1 liter (L) per day
- has protective functions
- It prevents bacterial infections in the mouth by washing
the oral cavity with mildly antibacterial enzyme called
lysozyome
- It neutralize the pH in the mouth, which reduces the
harmful effects of bacterial acid on tooth enamel
Salivary Amylase
- breaks down starch
- break down the covalent bonds between glucose
molecules in starch and other polysaccharides.
- this porduces disaccharides such as maltose and
isomaltose
3 parts of Pharynx:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
1. Voluntary phase
2. Pharyngeal phase
3. Esophageal phase
voluntary phase
- a bolus, or mass of food, is formed un the mouth
- the tongue pushes the bolus against the hard palate
- this forces the bolus toward the posterior part of the mouth and
into the oropharynx
pharyngeal phase
- controlled by reflex
- Initiated when bolus of good stimulated receptors in the
oropharynx to elevate the soft palate, closing off the nasopharynx
Cardiac region
- a stomach region around the gastroesophageal
opening
Fundus
- the most superior part of the stomach
Body
- the largest part of the stomach
- turns to the right, forming a greater and lesser
curvature
Pyloric opening
- is the opening into the small intestine
- surrounded by a relatively thick ring if smooth muscle
called Pyloric Sphincter
Pyloric region
- region of the stomach near the pyloric opening
Muscularis layer of the stomach
3 layers:
1. Outer longitudinal layer
2. Middle circular layer
3. Inner oblique layer
First group:
• Surface mucous cells
- first group of epithelial cell on the inner
surface of the stomach and lining the
gastric pits, which produces mucus
• Hydrochloric acid
• Pepsin
• Mucus
• Intrinsic factor
Hydrochloric acid
- produces a pH of about 2.0 un the
stomach
-kills microorganism and activated the
enzyme, pepsin.
Pepsin
- converted from its inactive form,
pepsinogen
- breaks covalent bond of protein to form
smaller peptide chains
- Exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at a
Mucus
- form a thick layer, which lubricates the epithelial
cells of the stomach wall and protects them from
the damaging effect of the acidic chyme and
pepsin.
- irritation of the stomach mucosa stimulates the
secretion of a greater volume of mucus
Intrinsic factor
- binds with vitamin B12 and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Two hormones:
• gastric inhibitory polypeptide
• cholecystokinin
MOVEMENTS OF THE
STOMACH
Ingested food is thoroughly mixed with the
secretions of the stomach glands to form chyme. This
mixing is accomplished by gentle mixing waves , which
are peristaltic-like contractions that occur about every 20
seconds and proceed from the body toward the pyloric
sphincter to mix the ingested material with the secretions
of the stomach. Peristaltic waves occur less frequently, are
significantly more powerful than mixing waves ,and force
the chyme near the periphery of the stomach toward the
pyloric sphincter.
The more solid material near the center of the
stomach is pushed superiorly toward the cardiac region
for further digestion (24.14).Roughly 80% of the
contractions are mixing waves, and 20% are peristaltic
waves.
MIXING OF STOMACH
CONTENTS
At the major papilla, the common bile duct and pancreatic duct
join to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla (Vater’s ampulla),
which empties into the duodenum. A smooth muscle sphincter,
the hepatopancreatic ampullar sphincter (sphincter of Oddi)
regulates the opening of the ampulla. An accessory pancreatic
duct, present in most people, opens at the tip of the lesser
duodenal papilla.
The mucosa and submucosa form a series of folds
called the circular folds, or plicae circulares, which
run perpendicular to the long axis of the digestive
tract.
Tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosa form
numerous villi (shaggy hair), which are 0.5 ı –1.5
mm in length.
Each villus is covered by simple columnar
epithelium and contains a blood capillary network
and a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal.
Most of the cells that make up the surface
of the villi have numerous cy882 Part 4
Regulations and Maintenance cytoplasmic
extensions (about 1 m long) called
microvilli, which further increase the
surface area.
1) bile production
2) storage
3) interconversion of nutrients
4) detoxification
5) phagocytosis
6) synthesis of blood components
FUNCTION OF THE LIVER
FUNCTION EXPLANATION
Storage
Hepatocytes can remove sugar from the blood and
store it in the form of glycogen. They can also store fat,
vitamins (A, B, D, E, and K), copper, and iron.
Nutrient Interconversion
Interconversion of nutrients is another important function
of the liver. Ingested nutrients are not always in the
proportion needed by the tissues. If this is the case, the
liver can convert some nutrients into others.
DETOXIFICATION
It detoxifies many substances by altering their structure to
make them less toxic or make their elimination easier.
Synthesis
The liver can also produce its own unique new
compounds. It produces many blood proteins, such as
albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, and clotting
factors, which are released into the circulation
PANCREAS
The pancreas is a complex organ composed
of both endocrine and exocrine tissues that
perform several functions.
• Trypsin
• Chymotrypsin
• Carboxypeptidase
PANCREATIC AMYLASE- continues the
polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral
cavity.
LIPASE- a lipid-digesting enzyme.
-are stored in adipose tissue and in the
liver, both of which release the lipids into the
blood when energy sources are needed
elsewhere in the body.
NUCLEASES- are enzymes that degrade DNA and
RNA to their component nucleotides.
Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum and
Pancreas
LARGE INTESTINE
LARGE INTESTINE:
• Cecum
• Colon
• Rectum
• Anal canal
LARGE INTESTINE: CECUM
• is the proximal end of the large intestine
where it joints with the small intestine at
the ileocecal junctions
• located in the right lower quadrant of the
abdomen near the iliac fossa.
• is a sac that extends inferiorly about 6 cm
past the ileocecal junction.
APPENDIX
attached to the cecum is a tube
9 cm long.
APPENDICITIS- is an
inflammation of the appendix
that usually occurs because of
an obstraction.
LARGE INTESTINE: COLON
• is about 1.5-1.8 m long and
consists of four parts:
Four parts:
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon
• Descending colon
• Sigmoid colon
COLON: ASCENDING
POLYSACCHARIDES
• are large carbohydrates, such as starches,
cellulose, and glycogen, that consist of
many sugar linked by chemical bonds
POLYSACCHARIDES:
STARCH
-is an energy-storage molecule
in plants.
POLYSACCHARIDES:
GLYCOGEN
- is an energy-storage molecule
in animals and is contained in
muscle and in the liver.
POLYSACCHARIDES:
CELLULOSE
- is a polysaccharide that is not
digested but is important for
providing fiber in the diet.
SALIVARY AMYLASE
- begins the digestion of carbohydrates in
the mouth.
PANCREATIC AMYLASE
- enters the duodenum and continues the
digestion of carbohydrates, so that
absorption can begin.
DISACCHARIDASES
• a group of enzymes
• bound to the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium
Lactase
-is made at birth; however, in 5-15% of the European-
America population and 80-90% of the African-American
and Asian-American populations, lactase synthesis sharply
declines 3-4 years after weaning.
MONOSACCHARIDES
- absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells
LIPID
• insoluble or only slightly soluble in water.
• Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat-
soluble vitamins.
TRIGLYCERIDES
• are the most common type of lipid.
Three fatty acids bound to glycerol:
• Saturated- fatty acids have only single bond between
carbons.
• Unsaturated- fatty acids have double bonds between
carbons.
• Monounsaturated- fats have one double bond and
polyunsaturated fats have more than one double bond
between carbons in their fatty acids.
LIPASE
• secreted by the pancreas, digests lipid
molecules
• however, the lipase alone cannot efficiently
digest lipids.
EMULSIFICATION
• a key step in lipid digestion which bile salts
transform large lipid droplets into much
smaller lipud droplets.
MONOSACCHARIDE TRANSPORT
LIPID TRANSPORT
Once lipids are digested in the intestine,
bile salts aggregate around the small
droplets of digested lipids to form
micelles
• Hydrophobic- water-fearing
-ends of the bile salts are direct
toward the lipid particles.
• Hydrophilic- water-loving
-ends are directed outward,
toward the water environment.
CHYLOMICRONS
• the package lipid-protein complexes, or
lipoproteins
• Leave the epithelial cells via exocytosis and enter
the lacteals, lymphatic capillaries within the
intestinal villi.
CHYLE
• lymph containing large amounts of absorbed
lipid