Sheeraz Shehzad

Roll no 40
DPT Final Year
 Breathing requires repetitive stimulation from
the brain as skeletal muscles required for
ventilation are unable to contract without
nervous stimulation.
 1. Neurons present in Pons
 2. Neurons present in Medulla Oblongata
 Inspiratory Neurons : Located in dorsal
respiratory group of medulla, firing leads to
deeper breath.
 Expiratory Neurons : Triggered with forced
expiration, stimulation causes inhibition of
inspiratory neurons when deeper expiration
is warranted.
• Pneumotaxic Center : Located in upper pons
• Maintains rhythm of ventilation balancing the
time periods of inspiration and expiration by
inhibiting inspiratory center of medulla
• Apneustic Center : It facilitates prolonged
breathing patterns when it is uninhibited
from pneumotaxic center
 It receives afferent input from various
locations
 Hypothalamus
 Limbic System
 Chemoreceptors
 Lung Receptors
 Sensations of pain and alterations in emotion
alter ventilation through input coming to
brainstem from limbic system and
hypothalamus.
 For example, Anxiety triggers
Hyperventilation leading to reduced CO2
levels in blood.
 Located in brainstem and peripheral arteries
 Responsible for sensing alterations in

 Blood pH
 CO2
 O2
 They are of two types
 1.Central Chemoreceptors
 2.Peripheral Chemoreceptors
 They are stimulated when CO2 levels rise in
CSF
 They facilitate an increased depth and rate of
ventilation to restore normal CO2 levels and
blood pH
 They are found within carotid artery and
aortic arch
 They respond to hypercapnia as well as
hypoxia by increasing ventilation
 Patients of COPD with chronically high levels
of CO2 rely mostly on oxygen levels for
regulation of their respiration.
 Reason ??
 There are 3 types of lung receptors that send
signals to respiratory center within brainstem
1. Irritant Receptors
2. Stretch Receptors
3. J Receptors
 Found within the epithelial layer of
conducting airways
 Respond to various noxious gases,particulate
matter and irritants causing them to initiate
cough reflex
 They also cause bronchial constriction and
increase ventilatory rate
 Located along the smooth muscle lining of
airways
 Sensitive to increasing size and volume within
lung
 Hering-Breuer Reflex
 Located near the pulmonary capillaries
 Respond to increased pulmonary capillary
pressures
 When stimulated, they inititate a rapid ,
shallow breathing pattern
 Also produce cough reflex