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Processing
1
Up-Sampler
Time-Domain Characterization
• An up-sampler with an up-sampling factor
L, where L is a positive integer, develops an
output sequence xu [n] with a sampling rate
that is L times larger than that of the input
sequence x[n]
• Block-diagram representation
x[n] L xu [n ]
2
Up-Sampler
• Figure below shows the up-sampling by a
factor of 3 of a sinusoidal sequence with a
frequency of 0.12 Hz
Input Sequence Output sequence upsampled by 3
1 1
0.5 0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
0.5 0.5
1 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n
3 Time index n
Up-Sampler
• Up-sampling operation is implemented by
inserting L 1 equidistant zero-valued
samples between two consecutive samples
of x[n]
• Input-output relation
x[n / L], n 0, L, 2 L,
xu [n]
0, otherwise
4
Up-Sampler
• In practice, the zero-valued samples
inserted by the up-sampler are replaced
with appropriate nonzero values using some
type of filtering process
• Process is called interpolation and will be
discussed later
5
Down-Sampler
Time-Domain Characterization
• An down-sampler with a down-sampling
factor M, where M is a positive integer,
develops an output sequence y[n] with a
sampling rate that is (1/M)-th of that of the
input sequence x[n]
• Block-diagram representation
x[n] M y[n]
6
Down-Sampler
• Down-sampling operation is implemented
by keeping every M-th sample of x[n] and
removing M 1 in-between samples to
generate y[n]
• Input-output relation
y[n] = x[nM]
7
Down-Sampler
• Figure below shows the down-sampling by
a factor of 3 of a sinusoidal sequence of
frequency 0.042 Hz
Input Sequence Output sequence downsampled by 3
1 1
0.5 0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
0.5 0.5
1 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
8
Basic Sampling Rate
Alteration Devices
• Sampling periods have not been explicitly
shown in the block-diagram representations
of the up-sampler and the down-sampler
• This is for simplicity and the fact that the
mathematical theory of multirate systems
can be understood without bringing the
sampling period T or the sampling
frequency FT into the picture
9
Down-Sampler
• Figure below shows explicitly the time-
dimensions for the down-sampler
x[ n ] xa ( nT ) M y[ n ] xa ( nMT )
10
Up-Sampler
• Figure below shows explicitly the time-
dimensions for the up-sampler
x[ n ] xa ( nT ) L y[n]
x ( nT / L ), n 0, L, 2 L,
a
0 otherwise
14
Up-Sampler
• In terms of the z-transform, the input-output
relation is then given by
n n
X u ( z) u
x [ n ] z x[ n / 2] z
n n
n even
m
x[m] z 2 m X ( z 2 )
15
Up-Sampler
• In a similar manner, we can show that for a
factor-of-L up-sampler
L
X u ( z) X ( z )
• On the unit circle, for z e j , the input-
output relation is given by
j j L
X u (e ) X (e )
16
Up-Sampler
• Figure below shows the relation between
j j
X (e ) and X u (e ) for L = 2 in the case of
a typical sequence x[n]
17
Up-Sampler
• As can be seen, a factor-of-2 sampling rate
j
expansion leads to a compression of X (e )
by a factor of 2 and a 2-fold repetition in
the baseband [0, 2]
• This process is called imaging as we get an
additional “image” of the input spectrum
18
Up-Sampler
• Similarly in the case of a factor-of-L
sampling rate expansion, there will be L 1
additional images of the input spectrum in
the baseband
• Lowpass filtering of xu [n] removes the L 1
images and in effect “fills in” the zero-
valued samples in xu [n] with interpolated
sample values
19
Up-Sampler
• Program 10_3 can be used to illustrate the
frequency-domain properties of the up-
sampler shown below for L = 4
Input spectrum Output spectrum
1 1
0.8 0.8
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
20
Down-Sampler
Frequency-Domain Characterization
• Applying the z-transform to the input-output
relation of a factor-of-M down-sampler
y[n] x[Mn]
we get
n
Y ( z) x[Mn] z
n
• The expression on the right-hand side cannot be
directly expressed in terms of X(z)
21
Down-Sampler
• To get around this problem, define a new
sequence xint [n] :
x[n], n 0, M , 2 M ,
xint [n]
0, otherwise
• Then
n n
Y ( z) x[Mn] z xint [Mn] z
n n
k / M 1/ M
xint [k ] z X int ( z )
22 k
Down-Sampler
• Now, xint [n] can be formally related to x[n]
through
xint [n] c[n] x[n]
where
1, n 0, M , 2 M ,
c[n]
0, otherwise
• A convenient representation of c[n] is given
by 1 M 1 kn
c[n]
M k 0
WM
where WM e j 2 / M
23
Down-Sampler
• Taking the z-transform of xint [n] c[n] x[n]
and making use of
1 M 1
c[n] WMkn
M k 0
we arrive at
M 1
n 1 kn n
X int ( z ) c[n]x[n] z M
W x[ n ] z
n M n k 0
1 M 1
1 M 1
kn n k
x
M k 0 n
[ n ]WM z
X z W M
24 M k 0
Down-Sampler
• Consider a factor-of-2 down-sampler with
an input x[n] whose spectrum is as shown
below
26
Down-Sampler
• The plots of the two terms have an overlap,
and hence, in general, the original “shape”
of X (e j ) is lost when x[n] is down-
sampled as indicated below
27
Down-Sampler
• This overlap causes the aliasing that takes
place due to under-sampling
• There is no overlap, i.e., no aliasing, only if
X ( e j ) 0 for / 2
• Note: Y (e j ) is indeed periodic with a
period 2, even though the stretched version
of X (e j ) is periodic with a period 4
28
Down-Sampler
• For the general case, the relation between the
DTFTs of the output and the input of a factor-
of-M down-sampler is given by
1 M 1
Y ( e j ) X ( e j ( 2 k ) / M )
M k 0
• Y (e j ) is a sum of M uniformly
shifted and stretched versions of X (e jand )
scaled by a factor of 1/M
29
Down-Sampler
• Aliasing is absent if and only if
X (e j ) 0 for / M
as shown below for M = 2
X (e j ) 0 for / 2
30
Down-Sampler
• Program 10_4 can be used to illustrate the
frequency-domain properties of the up-
sampler shown below for M = 2
Input spectrum Output spectrum
1 0.5
0.8 0.4
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.6 0.3
0.4 0.2
0.2 0.1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
31
Down-Sampler
• The input and output spectra of a down-sampler with
M = 3 obtained using Program 10-4 are shown below
Input spectrum Output spectrum
1 0.5
0.8 0.4
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.6 0.3
0.4 0.2
• Effect
0.2 of aliasing can be clearly
0.1 seen
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ /
32
Cascade Equivalences
• A complex multirate system is formed by an
interconnection of the up-sampler, the
down-sampler, and the components of an
LTI digital filter
• In many applications these devices appear
in a cascade form
• An interchange of the positions of the
branches in a cascade often can lead to a
computationally efficient realization
33
Cascade Equivalences
• To implement a fractional change in the
sampling rate we need to employ a cascade
of an up-sampler and a down-sampler
• Consider the two cascade connections
shown below
x[n ] M L y1 [ n ]
x[n ] L M y2 [ n]
34
Cascade Equivalences
• A cascade of a factor-of-M down-sampler
and a factor-of-L up-sampler is
interchangeable with no change in the
input-output relation:
y1[n] y2[n]
if and only if M and L are relatively prime,
prime
i.e., M and L do not have any common
factor that is an integer k > 1
35
Cascade Equivalences
• Two other cascade equivalences are shown
below
Cascade equivalence #1
x[n ] M H ( z) y1 [ n ]
x[n ] H (z M ) M y1 [ n ]
Cascade equivalence #2
x[n ] L H (z L ) y2 [ n]
x[n ] H ( z) L y2 [ n]
36
Filters in Sampling Rate
Alteration Systems
• From the sampling theorem it is known that
a the sampling rate of a critically sampled
discrete-time signal with a spectrum
occupying the full Nyquist range cannot be
reduced any further since such a reduction
will introduce aliasing
• Hence, the bandwidth of a critically
sampled signal must be reduced by lowpass
filtering before its sampling rate is reduced
by a down-sampler
37
Filters in Sampling Rate
Alteration Systems
• Likewise, the zero-valued samples
introduced by an up-sampler must be
interpolated to more appropriate values for
an effective sampling rate increase
• We shall show next that this interpolation
can be achieved simply by digital lowpass
filtering
• We now develop the frequency response
specifications of these lowpass filters
38
Filter Specifications
• Since up-sampling causes periodic
repetition of the basic spectrum, the
unwanted images in the spectra of the up-
sampled signal xu [n] must be removed by
using a lowpass filter H(z), called the
interpolation filter,
filter as indicated below
xu [n]
x[n ] L H (z) y[n ]
40
Interpolation Filter
Specifications
• Assume x[n] has been obtained by sampling
a continuous-time signalxa (t ) at the Nyquist
rate
j
• If X a ( j) and X (e ) denote the Fourier
transforms of xa (t ) and x[n], respectively,
then it can be shown
1 j j 2 k
j
X (e ) Xa
To k To
41 • where To is the sampling period
Interpolation Filter
Specifications
• Since the sampling is being performed at the
Nyquist rate,
rate there is no overlap between the
shifted spectras of X ( j / To )
• If we instead sample xa (t ) at a much higher
rate T L To yielding y[n], its Fourier
j
transform Y (e ) is related to X a ( j)
through
j 1 j j 2 k L j j 2 k
Y (e ) Xa Xa
T k T To k To / L
42
Interpolation Filter
Specifications
• On the other hand, if we pass x[n] through a
factor-of-L up-sampler generating xu [n] ,
the relation between the Fourier transforms
of x[n] andxu [n] are given by
j j L
X u (e ) X (e )
• It therefore follows that if xu [n] is passed
through an ideal lowpass filter H(z) with a
cutoff at /L and a gain of L, the output of
the filter will be precisely y[n]
43
Interpolation Filter
Specifications
• In practice, a transition band is provided to
ensure the realizability and stability of the
lowpass interpolation filter H(z)
• Hence, the desired lowpass filter should
have a stopband edge at s / L and a
passband edge p close to s to reduce the
distortion of the spectrum of x[n]
44
Interpolation Filter
Specifications
• If c is the highest frequency that needs to
be preserved in x[n], then
p c / L
• Summarizing the specifications of the
lowpass interpolation filter are thus given
by
j L, c / L
H (e )
0, / L
45
Decimation Filter
Specifications
• In a similar manner, we can develop the
specifications for the lowpass decimation
filter that are given by
j 1, c / M
H (e )
0, / M
46
Filter Design Methods
• The design of the filter H(z) is a standard
IIR or FIR lowpass filter design problem
• Any one of the techniques outlined in
Chapter 7 can be applied for the design of
these lowpass filters
47
Filters for Fractional Sampling
Rate Alteration
• A fractional change in the sampling rate can
be achieved by cascading a factor-of-M
decimator with a factor-of-L interpolator,
where M and L are positive integers
• Such a cascade is equivalent to a decimator
with a decimation factor of M/L or an
interpolator with an interpolation factor of
L/M
48
Filters for Fractional Sampling
Rate Alteration
• There are two possible such cascade
connections as indicated below
H d (z) M L H u (z)
L H u (z) H d (z) M
51
Computational Requirements
• This issue is not quite the same in the case
of multirate digital signal processing
• To illustrate this point further, consider the
factor-of-M decimator shown below
v[n ] y[n ]
x[n ] H (z) M
• If the decimation filter H(z) is an FIR filter
of length N implemented in a direct form,
then N 1
v[n] h[m] x[n m]
52 m 0
Computational Requirements
• Now, the down-sampler keeps only every M-
th sample of v[n] at its output
• Hence, it is sufficient to compute v[n] only
for values of n that are multiples of M and
skip the computations of in-between
samples
• This leads to a factor of M savings in the
computational complexity
53
Computational Requirements
• Now assume H(z) to be an IIR filter of
order K with a transfer function
V ( z) P( z )
H ( z)
X ( z) D( z )
where K
n
P( z ) pn z
n 0
K
n
D( z ) 1 dn z
54 n 1
Computational Requirements
• Its direct form implementation is given by
w[n] d1w[n 1] d 2 w[n 2]
d K w[n K ] x[n]
v[n] p0 w[n] p1w[n 1] pK w[n K ]
• Since v[n] is being down-sampled, it is
sufficient to compute v[n] only for values of
n that are integer multiples of M
55
Computational Requirements
• However, the intermediate signal w[n] must
be computed for all values of n
• For example, in the computation of
v[M ] p0 w[M ] p1w[M 1] pK w[M K ]
K+1 successive values of w[n] are still
required
• As a result, the savings in the computation
in this case is going to be less than a factor
of M
56
Computational Requirements
• For the case of interpolator design, very
similar arguments hold
• If H(z) is an FIR interpolation filter, then the
computational savings is by a factor of L
(since v[n] has L 1 zeros between its
consecutive nonzero samples)
• On the other hand, computational savings is
significantly less with IIR filters
57
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• The function decimate can be employed
to reduce the sampling rate of an input
signal vector x by an integer factor M to
generate the output signal vector y
• The decimation of a sequence by a factor of
M can be obtained using Program 10_5
which employs the function decimate
58
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• Example - The input and output plots of a
factor-of-2 decimator designed using the
Program 10_5 are shown below
Input sequence Output sequence
2 2
1 1
Amplitude
0 Amplitude 0
1 1
2 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
59
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• The function interp can be employed to
increase the sampling rate of an input signal
x by an integer factor L generating the
output vector y
• The lowpass filter designed by the M-file is
a symmetric FIR filter
60
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• The filter allows the original input samples to
appear as is in the output and finds the missing
samples by minimizing the mean-square errors
between these samples and their ideal values
• The interpolation of a sequence x by a factor
of L can be obtained using the Program 10_6
which employs the function interp
61
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• Example - The input and output plots of a
factor-of-2 interpolator designed using
Program 10_6 are shown below
Input sequence Output sequence
2 2
1 1
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
1 1
2 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time index n Time index n
62
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• The function resample can be employed
to increase the sampling rate of an input
vector x by a ratio of two positive integers,
L/M, generating an output vector y
• The M-file employs a lowpass FIR filter
designed using fir1 with a Kaiser
window
• The fractional interpolation of a sequence
can be obtained using Program 10_7 which
employs the function resample
63
Sampling Rate Alteration
Using MATLAB
• Example - The input and output plots of a
factor-of-5/3 interpolator designed using
Program 10_7 are given below
Input sequence Output sequence
2 2
1 1
Amplitude
0 Amplitude 0
1 1
2 2
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40 50
64 Time index n Time index n