Basic Research Methods I:

a step by step guide to doing and unders

tanding research

1
“Tell me, and I forget. Show me, and I re
member. Involve me, and I understand”

Chinese proverb

2
Outline

• Framing a Research Question

• Formulating your objectives and research hyp
othesis
• Reviewing the Literature
• Deciding on a study design
Disclaimer

“Break any of these rules sooner tha

n say anything barbarous”

-George Orwell in his essay

Politics and the English Language

4
Why do Research?

Aspects of Research
– Vanity Factor
– Prestige
– Promotions
– Big Money
Why do Research?

• Add to knowledge about the world around us

• Contribute to the common good of man, socie
ty and the environment
• Improve the conditions of living and formulati
on of policy towards such
• Instill values in the researcher (inquisitiveness,
perseverance, systematic and logical thinking)
• Knack for problem-solving
http://www.makeitsolar.com/images/chartmethod002.jpg
Good Research Problem

• Researchability
• Significance/ Relevance
• Feasibility
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
• Ethical
Good Research Problem

• Research ability
– problems that require value judgment cannot be t
ested
• Significance/ Relevance
• Feasibility
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
• Ethical
Good Research Problem

• Researchability
• Significance/ Relevance
– development of knowledge that is useful in scienc
e, clinical setting or policy development, etc.
• Feasibility
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
• Ethical
Good Research Problem

• Researchability
• Significance/ Relevance
• Feasibility
– issues of personnel, equipment, time and resourc
es
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
• Ethical
Good Research Problem

• Researchability
• Significance/ Relevance
• Feasibility
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
– unanswered research problem
• Ethical
Good Research Problem

• Researchability
• Significance/ Relevance
• Feasibility
• Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication
• Ethical
– possibility of harm that may be inflicted on partici
pants
Case 1: An imaginative group of seniors
from DPS started a brainstorming
session to come up with a list of possible
research topics. Can you help them
decide on a suitable topic?
WHAT IS NOW A GOOD RESEARCH
PROBLEM?

14
Some Research Problems…

a. How many times a day does a person fart?

b. How many stars are there in the universe?
c. Does the smoking of 4 packs of cigarettes a d
ay increase my likelihood of lung cancer?
d. How white is the bond paper used for this ha
ndout?
e. Does Hibiscus rosasenensis grow better in a s
unny or dark place?
Some Research Problems…

a. How many times a day does a person fart?

b. How many stars are there in the universe?
c. Does the smoking of 4 packs of cigarettes a d
ay increase my likelihood of lung cancer?
d. How white is the bond paper used for this ha
ndout?
e. Does Hibiscus rosasenensis grow better in a s
unny or dark place?
Research Question

• The question the research seeks to answer

• Interrogative sentence form

Is the question too broad or too narrow?

• Cannot be further broken down into sub-quest
ions
• Unanswered questions may become part of th
e Scope and Delimitations of the research.
Case 2: A budding scientist from DPS decided
to study the structure of connective tissues
that allows them to bear great weights and
be even stronger than steel.
His RQ: “What is the structural feature of
cartilage that makes it so sturdy?”
He seems to have a problem though with
formulating the hypotheses and
conceptualizing his experimental study
design. What went wrong?
HYPOTHESIS & STUDY DESIGN
18
Levels of RQ

Level 1 Little is known, Descriptive and Qualitative

Question answers “the what” designs, feasibility designs,
case studies
Level 2 Explore relationships Passive Observational
Question between two or more Designs
variables (association)
Level 3 Test existing theory or True and Quasi-
Question models, predict what experimental designs
will happen and why
(cause-effect)
Examples
• What is the structural feature of cartilage that make
s it so sturdy?
• What is the frequency of parasitic infections among
school aged children?
• What risk factors are associated with heart disease?
• What is the relationship of rainfall and growth of a p
lant?
• Lagundi Extract: how effective is it in common colds
?
• What is the effect of maximum dose glutathione the
rapy?
Hypothesis

• Answer to the Research Question

• Declarative form
Two Types:
• Null Hypothesis
• Alternative Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (Ho)

assumes that no association exists

Drug A is as effective as Drug B

Greater fiber content will not cause the material
to be stronger.
Umbrella A blocks harmful UV rays as good as
umbrella K
Increased amounts of fertilizer will not cause an
increased plant growth
Null Hypothesis (Ha)

assumes that an association exists

Drug A is more effective than Drug B

Greater fiber content will cause the material to
be stronger
A Difference exists in UV shielding effectivity of
Umbrella A compared to umbrella K
Increased amounts of fertilizer will cause an
increased plant growth
Case 2: A budding scientist from DPS decided
to study the structure of connective tissues
that allows them to bear great weights and
be even stronger than steel.
His RQ: “What is the structural feature of
cartilage that makes it so sturdy?”
He seems to have a problem though with
formulating the hypotheses and
conceptualizing his experimental study
design. What went wrong?
HYPOTHESIS & STUDY DESIGN
24
Answer to Case 2

• Hypothesis formulation is not suitable and not

needed for Level 1 Questions
• Level 1 questions should not take an experime
ntal design
Bonus Question

Favorite Pick-up Line

26
A. Para kang Research Methods I lecture handout
Nauubos ang oras ko kakatitig lang sa ‘yo.
B. Google ka ba?
Kasi lahat na ng hinahanap ko
Nasa iyo na eh.
C. Top View
Side View
Bottom View
Kahit anong view
I Love View
D. Grabe ang dami na ng mga pick-up lines ngayon.
Wala na nga akong maisip na iba
Kundi ikaw
Objectives

• solution to a research problem

• desired outcome of the study to test hypothes
is

1.General Objectives – overall goal of the resear

ch
2.Specific Objectives – clearly stated measurable
terms derived from the General Objectives
Examples

GO: To determine the effect of Glutathione on

Skin Whitening
SO: To establish the most effective dose of
glutathione for skin whitening
To describe changes in cellular structure
upon administration of glutathione.
Variables

• factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differ

ent states, amounts or types
Variables

• Independent Variable
– the variable which the scientist (or nature) change
s in order to observe a change, the variable that is
presumed to determine a dependent variable
• Dependent Variable
– assumed effect that changes as a result from som
e independent variable
Examples

Growth
(y-axis)

Rain Fall (x-axis)

• Association between high rain fall and the imp

roved growth of certain plant species
Examples

Blood Flow
(y-axis)

Resistance (x-axis)

• Increased resistance by blood vessels, decreas

ed flow to the organ
Variables

• Confounding Variable
– “third variable” that may influence the dependent
and independent variable

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Confounding Variables
Literature Search

• Books
• Journal Articles
• Internet
– Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com)
– Science Direct (www.sciencedirect.com)
– Ebsco Host (www.ebscohost.com)
– Health Research and Development Information Netwo
rk (www.herdin.ph)
– University of the Philippines Integrated Library System
(http://ilib.upd.edu.ph/)
• Records (…)
Literature Search

Strategies:
• Broadening/narrowing the question
• Using different terms/ combination of terms
• Limiting your search by choosing specific study
designs, year of publication, type of journal, et
c. (Advanced Search)
• Use of Note Cards
• Use of Boolean Operators
Use of Boolean Operators

George Boole
• 1815 –1864
• English mathematician and philosopher
• Inventor of Boolean Logic which became the b
asis for computer logic/ science
Use of Boolean Operators

• AND
• OR
• NOT
• *
• ?
Where’s Wikipedia?

• Sources of Data
– Primary Data
– Secondary Data
• Levels of Evidence
• “free encyclopedia that anyone can edit”
Case 3: A young researcher at CEU is
distraught. She is stuck with planning her
research and would appreciate any kind of
help.
She would like to do a pharmacologic-medical
research concerning the antimicrobial activity
of a Myxomycete species that is known in her
province for its supposed curative effect of
skin rashes.
OBJECTIVES, VARIABLES &
SEARCHING
51
Her Objectives:
GO: 1. To investigate the antimicrobial activity
of Craterium retisporum crude extract on a
culture of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.
SO: 1. To assess the improvement of skin
rashes caused by S. aureus

Which statement, if any, is wrong?

OBJECTIVES, VARIABLES &
SEARCHING
52
Variables. Multiple Choice.
A.IV: Growth of bacteria & DV: Growth of Myx
omycetes
B.IV: Inhibition of growth of bacteria & DV: in
hibition of growth of myxomycetes
C.CF: Growth of bacteria & IV: Reduction of ra
shes
D.IV: Growth of myxomycetes & DV: Inhibitio
n of growth of bacteria
OBJECTIVES, VARIABLES &
SEARCHING
53
OBJECTIVES, VARIABLES &
SEARCHING
54
Right Study Design

• Objectives of your Study

– What do I wish to find out?
– Getting the right results and avoiding confounders
and bias
• Previously published literature
• Expert Testimony
• Ethical Considerations
Descriptive
• Case Report
• Cross Sectional
Analytic (at least 2 comparative groups)
• Observational
– Cross Sectional
– Case-Control
– Retrospective Cohort
• Interventional
– Before-After Study
– Prospective Cohort
– Quasi Experimental
– Randomized Control Trial/ True Experimental
Case Control

• Outcome is present at the start of the study

• Investigation into the Cause or Exposure that r
esulted to the Outcome
• Control is selected by choosing a group where
the outcome is present
 Direction of Inquiry
Starting Point

Case Control
58
From Beaglehole, R, Bonita, R. & Kjellström, T. (1993) Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO

Case Control
59
Cohort

• Outcome is NOT present at the start of the stu

dy
• Exposure is either present or will be introduce
d
• Follow-up period is necessary to observe the e
ffect of the exposure/intervention
 Direction of Inquiry
Starting Point

Start
Prospective Cohort Start
Retrospective Cohort

Cohort
61
From Beaglehole, R, Bonita, R. & Kjellström, T. (1993) Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO

Cohort
62
Randomized Control Trial

• Strongest type of study design

• Follow-up period is necessary to observe the e
ffect of the exposure/intervention
• Exposure is randomly assigned
 Time
Starting Point

Randomization

RCT/True Experimental
64
Basic Research Methods II:

a step by step guide to doing and unders

tanding research

65
Outline

• Data Collection / Instrumentation

• Data Presentation
• From Results to Conclusions
 PHASE 1
Data Gathering / Instrumentations
Data Collection

• Core activity of every research study

• HEART & SOUL of a research

• Process and method of data collection give

the degree of VALIDITY, RELIABILITY and
OBJECTIVITY of the entire study
There are many fruits..
TYPES of RESEARCH DATA
ACCORDING to SOURCE
1. Primary Data : obtained by the investigator to
answer specifically the questions he has in mind
> examples: interviews, physical and
laboratory examinations
2. Secondary Data
TYPES of RESEARCH DATA
ACCORDING to SOURCE
1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data: gathered by other individuals
or agencies
> from published reports, existing records from agencies
or institutions, health registries, census
> more readily available but sometimes incomplete
> maybe more difficult to access to because of
confidentiality of information
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness – data should be applicable to the
time it is needed most
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Completeness
• Relevance
• Adequacy
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness
• Accuracy – closeness of the data to the real
situation
• Precision
• Completeness
• Relevance
• Adequacy
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness
• Accuracy
• Precision – data being able to be duplicated
when gathered again from other but similar
population using the described instruments
• Completeness
• Relevance
• Adequacy
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Completeness – collecting all the required
information from all the subjects in the study
population
• Relevance
• Adequacy
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Completeness
• Relevance – information gathered is the one
needed in the study
• Adequacy
BASIC QUALITIES
of a USEFUL RESEARCH DATA
• Timeliness
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Completeness
• Relevance
• Adequacy – may not be complete but enough
for the researcher to derive logical inferences
according to the objectives and the needs of
the end-users of the research
Data Collection Techniques
• The Interview Method
Data Collection Techniques
• The Questionnaire Method
Data Collection Techniques
• The Observation Method
Data Collection Techniques
• The Experimental Method
Case 1: A group of DPS senior high
school students want to have an
investigative project to find out on which
soil a certain plant species grows best.

Suggest what kind of data should be

collected and how this can be done.

DATA COLLECTION
82
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Record Book

Label necessary personal

information
No drawings
No personal jut-downs
Keep it simple and neat
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Record Book

Label necessary personal

information
No drawings
No personal jut-downs
Keep it simple and neat
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Record Book

Label necessary personal

information
No drawings
No personal jut-downs
Keep it simple and neat
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Record Book

Label necessary personal

information
No drawings
No personal jut-downs
Keep it simple and neat
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Information / Data Sheets
Keep it unbiased, record the
initial data you had
No fabrications of results
Maintain it organized and
systematic all the times
Avoid erasures and forms of
alterations
In case of a mistake, put a
single line in the information you
had encoded, then put the right
information then countersign it.
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Information / Data Sheets
Keep it unbiased, record the
initial data you had
No fabrications of results
Maintain it organized and
systematic all the times
Avoid erasures and forms of
alterations
In case of a mistake, put a
single line in the information you
had encoded, then put the right
information then countersign it.
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Information / Data Sheets
Keep it unbiased, record the
initial data you had
No fabrications of results
Maintain it organized and
systematic all the times
Avoid erasures and forms of
alterations
In case of a mistake, put a
single line in the information you
had encoded, then put the right
information then countersign it.
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Information / Data Sheets
Keep it unbiased, record the
initial data you had
No fabrications of results
Maintain it organized and
systematic all the times
Avoid erasures and forms of
alterations
In case of a mistake, put a
single line in the information you
had encoded, then put the right
information then countersign it.
Data Gathering Instruments
• The Information / Data Sheets
Keep it unbiased, record the
initial data you had
No fabrications of results
Maintain it organized and
systematic all the times
Avoid erasures and forms of
alterations
In case of a mistake, put a
single line in the information you
had encoded, then put the right
information then countersign it.
Data Gathering Instruments

The Jan Hendrik Schön Case

The biggest fraud in physics for the last 50 years

•Allegedly produced a transistor on a

molecular scale
• No raw data presented
• No notebook as evidence
 PHASE 2
Data Presentations
Basket of fruits?!?

A tasteful salad for everyone…

The General Scheme

DATA
Data Presentation Methods

• Textual
• Tabular
• Graphical
Textual Presentation

• Data are simply narrated in story-fashion

• Only used with small data sets and limited
summaries
• Don't use a table or graph just to be
"fancy"
– If you can summarize the information in one
sentence, then a table or graph is not
necessary
Tabular Presentation
Column heading
Title Table 2. Prognostic Variables at Baseline
Row Characteristic Drug Placebo
heading (n = 950) (n = 930)
Age, years (mean, sd) 60, 4.5 62, 5.2
Standing diastolic blood pressure 85.6, 4.3 86.2, 5.5
at entry, mmHg (mean, sd) Field
Prior use of diuretics 180 (19)a 220 (24)
Exertional chest pain at less than 380 (40) 410 (44)b
maximum effort
Duration of chest pain greater than 875 (92) 895 (96)
30 min at onset
a Number in parenthesis equal percent
bP Footnotes
< 0.05
98
Critique the table
Table 7. Independent Predictors of Coronary Heart
Disease Among Middle-Aged Subjects
Predictor Odds ratio Standard 95% CI
Error
Sex

Age
Serum
Cholesterol
Systolic Blood
Pressure
Smoking
Critique the table

Characteristic Intervention Control

(n=92) (n=89)

Mean age (years, sd)

Sex (%male)
Race (%white)
Marital Status (%married)
Critique the table
Table 6. Reasons Why Patients Dropped Out of a Study on their Own

Reasons for withdrawal Number withdrawn

1. Adverse drug reactions 1.00

2. Disease worsened 2.00

3. Disease improved on therapy 5.00

4. Personal reasons unrelated to 1.00

study
5. Others-specify 1.00

101
GUIDELINES in CONSTRUCTING TABLES

• Do not use internal horizontal or vertical lines.

• Include units (e.g. meters, liters, seconds, etc.), and
define all treatments
• Label columns, including units of measure, and define all
treatments
• Avoid listing figures with numerous “0”s, and decimal
places
• Authors should place explanatory matter in footnotes
• Totals should be shown if appropriate
• Codes, abbreviations, and symbols should be explained
in a footnote

102
GUIDELINES in CONSTRUCTING TABLES

• If you use data from published or unpublished source,

obtain permission and acknowledge them fully (source
should be given in a footnote)
• Each table should be cited in the text
• Number tables consecutively in the order of their first
citation in the text and supply a brief title for each
• Tables are numbered separately from the figures as
Table 1 to Table X
• Readers must be able to interpret tables without needing
to refer to the text or to other tables or figures

103
GRAPHICAL

• The relationships among numbers of various magnitudes

can usually be seen more quickly and easily from graphs
than from tables
• It provides a sketch that quickly conveys general trends
in the data to the reader

104
 Choosing the Appropriate Graphs
Graph Variable Purpose

Bar (horizontal Quantitative or Comparison of absolute or

or vertical) qualitative relative counts between
categories
Pie or Qualitative Breakdown of a group or
component bar total where the no. of
categories is not too many
Histogram or Quantitative Graphic representation of a
freq. polygon frequency distribution
Line diagram Time series Show trend of data or
changes in time w/ respect
to some other variable
Scatterplot Quantitative Correlate data between 2
variables
11/15/2019
Critique the graphs
Other

Medication Related

Paraneoplastic

B12 deficiency
Idiopathic

Diabetes

Alcohol abuse
Critique the graphs
Figure 2.00: Number of vehicular accidents in Agusan
600

500

400
Number of Cases

300

200

100

0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
(Moving Averages)
Figure 5. Number of Malaria Cases, Agusan del Sur, 1997-2000
Critique the graphs
200

150
Systolic Blood Pressure

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age (years)
Figure 5. Scatterplot of Age and Systolic Blood Pressure
Critique the graphs
100.0

80.0
Percentage

60.0 56.0

40.0
29.8

20.0
10.4
7.9
0.1
0.0
Physical Blood/finger X-ray Others Don't know
examination prick

Figure 1. Knowledge on the diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis

of the sampled population, ADS, 2005
 PHASE 3
From Results to Conclusions
Ponder on this…
• Having a data is not enough you need to interpret yo
ur results
• Discuss the relevant observation from the data you h
ad presented
• Your result is back – up with mathematical /statistical
analysis
On discussing your results…
• Discussing your results is the harder part of a researc
h study because this needs a little exercise from your
brain (analytical thinking)

HOW TO DISCUSS YOUR RESULTS?

• Explain key principles or theories where your research

study is related.
• Compare and contrast your findings from other related
previous studies
• Refute other’s results
On discussing your results…
• Discussing your results is the harder part of a researc
h study because this needs a little exercise from your
brain (analytical thinking)

HOW TO DISCUSS YOUR RESULTS?

• Explain key principles or theories where your research

study is related.
• Compare and contrast your findings from other related
previous studies
• Refute other’s results
Descriptive Statistics
• consists of procedures used to summarize and descri
be the important characteristics of a set of measure
ments
e.g. 1. Creating Graphs for categorical data
2. Relative Frequency Histograms
3. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)
4. Measures of Dispersion (Range, Variance and Standard Deviation)
5. Measures of Locations (Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles)
Inferential Statistics
• consists of procedures used to make inferences abou
t population characteristics from information contain
ed in a sample drawn from this population

HYPOTHESIS

usually concerned with the parameters of the

population about which the statement is made.
The grand scheme of things...
One-sample Two Groups Three or More Groups
Measure Independent Related/ Independent Related/
(optimal) matched matched

Interval/ z-test t-tests trelated -test One-way Randomised

ratio [13] [15] [15] ANOVA block ANOVA
t-test (n < 30) [16] [18]
Factorial ANCOVA
ANOVA [17] [18]

Ordinal Kolmogorov- Kolmogorov- Wilcoxon Kruskal-Wallis Freidman two-

Smirnov test Smirnov test signed ranks one-way way analysis
[19] Wilcoxon- test [20] analysis of of variance by
Mann-Whitney variance [20] ranks
test [19] [20]


Nominal  -test,  -test, k x 2  -test for
2 2
McNemar Cochran
goodness-of- tables change test m x k tables Q-test
fit [19] [19] [20] [20] [20]
 The End
Thank you for your attention!
Any Questions?

for feedback, you may email the author:

nhad_05@yahoo.com

117
From Experiment to Paper:

Technical Writing Skills for Scientists

118
Outline

• Parts of a Research Paper

• Outlining
• Approach to Style
• Citing References
• Ethical Considerations in Research
Definitions

Research Proposal
– Plan of what the project is about
– Detailed written “blueprint” of the study
– Serves as guide for the conduct and execution of t
he project
– For consideration of review boards and funding ag
encies
Definitions

Research Article
– Published end-product manuscript
– Allows the author to share his findings with fellow
researchers and the community
– Contribution to Knowledge
– Basis for follow-up studies and development of pr
actical applications by other researchers
Possible Parts of a Research Paper

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Review of Related Literature
• Materials and Methods/ Methodology
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusion
• References/ Bibliography
• Appendices
Abstract

• Summary of the most important aspects of th

e research presented in capsule format
• Fewest possible words to explain the study wit
hout compromising
• Maximum length may be set by the journal or
the institution
Introduction

• Identify what is being studied and the study desig

n used
• Significance of the study and scientific rationale
• May include objectives and hypothesis (or separa
te)
• Move from general to specific (real world proble
m  your research)
• Engage your reader, answer the question Why sh
ould I care?
Review of Related Literature

• Discussion of published literature references i

n relation to current research
• Review of previous methods/ study designs
Materials and Methods

• Description of sampling method, study design,

implementation of the experiment, order/ tim
ing of tasks, inclusion/exclusion criteria
• May make use of flowcharts or illustrations
• 3rd Person, Past Passive
Materials and Methods

• Equipment and materials are described exactl

y by identifying the manufacturer and model
• Use subheadings to organize your methods
• Common procedures may be mentioned by na
me or be given a reference
• New methods should be described in sufficient
detail to allow replication
Results and Discussion

• Data presented as text, tables or graphs. Does

not include raw data
• Explanation for the occurrence of the results b
ased on reliable references
• Order multiple results logically (most to least i
mportant, simple to complex, chronologically)
• Do not merely repeat table data/ data from yo
ur results section
Results and Discussion

• Give evidence for your explanations/ conclusio

ns
• Compare and Contrast with other works
• Do not leave out negative data or data that do
not fit the general pattern, instead try to expla
in them
• Results not relevant to the argument or topic p
resented need not be included
Results and Discussion

• Avoid vague statements “there was a trend towar

ds…” instead give statistical significance or some
estimate of accuracy and precision of the data
• Do not reconsider every part of the study in minut
e detail for your discussion
• In your discussion, move from your results to liter
ature, practice and theory
• Assess validity of the results, relate to previous w
orks, comment on significance & implications & fu
ture directions of study
Conclusion

• Answer to the objectives set in the beginning

of the research
• Reiteration of the important points of the rese
arch
• May include recommendations and future dire
ctions for research (or separate)
References/ Bibliography

• List of sources cited in the work (may follow o

ne of several style formats: American Psycholo
gical Association, Modern Language Associatio
n, etc.)
• Follow prescribed style format and order (alph
abetical, chronological)
• Be consistent
Appendices

• “Raw Data”
• Gantt chart/ Time schedule
• Budget Plan
• Ethics, Informed Consent, Relevant Permits
• Author’s Resume
Identify the
parts of this
article and
give their
purpose.
Outlines

A well-written outline helps to:

• Show weak areas of your research-argument whic
h require more information
• Schedule the work
• Give you an overall sense of direction of the resea
rch
• Define boundaries and logical subdivisions of the
research
• Shows the relationship of your ideas
Outlines
1. Determine the audience, purpose, and thesis stateme
nt of your paper
2. Brainstorm for all ideas you wish to include
3. Cluster related ideas and place the key point as subse
ction heading
4. Arrange material falling under one category in a specif
ic order
5. Identify important details and evidences for each key
point
6. Ensure that all ideas follow the order and contribute t
o the thesis statement
Formal Outline

The Human Brain and How it Functions

I. Skills Divided by Hemispheres
A.Left Brain
1.Logical
2.Mathematical
3.Grammatical
B.Right Brain
1.Creative
2.Poetic
3.Artistic
Mind Map/ Concept Maps
Approach to Style

Level of Usage: Formal Language

• academic and serious in its tone and manner
• traditional grammar rules
• complex but varied sentence structures
• extensive vocabulary
Personal Writing Style

• Know your audience

• Place yourself in the background
• Write with nouns and verbs
• Revise and Rewrite
• Do not overwrite and be sparing in figures of spe
ech
• Avoid the use of qualifiers, instead be specific (m
etric units)
• Use orthodox spelling and word usage
• Be clear, concise and consistent
Good Writing

 Sentence Unity
 Keep consistency of grammatical structures
 Leaders do not command excellence; excellence is built
by them
 Good planning helps to make elusive dreams came
true.
 Avoid choppy sentences
 The student studied very well. He got the highest score
in class. His grade was 99.
 Avoid fragments
 When the students attended the workshop.
Good Writing

 Sentence Coherence
 Avoid misplaced or dangling modifiers
 The terrorist was described as a tall man with a heavy
mustache weighing 170 pounds.
 Avoid split constructions
 Look to, before crossing the street, the left and to the ri
ght.
 Use correct pronoun reference
 To all dog-owners: Tie them.
 Use transitional devices
 You start something. Finish it. (If)
Good Writing

 Sentence Emphasis
 Place important words in strong positions
 Recency over Primacy
 Love is patient and kind, as the Biblical verse goes.
 Arrange ideas in logical order
 To qualify for a job, you have to be morally upright,
physically fit and mentally stable.
 Repeat important words and ideas
 Democracy is a government of, for, and by the people
 Use periodic sentences
 The people perish where there is no vision.
Good Writing

 Sentence Conciseness
 Avoid wordy expressions
 In the last act of the play is the explanation of the title
of the play.
 Avoid fine writing
 Revenue enhancers can be paid through the nearest
financial institution.
Good Writing

 Sentence Variety
 Vary Sentence Forms and Arrangements
 I know these facts to be true.
 Vary the beginning of your sentences
 Dr. Hayden Kho and Katrina Halili were detained by the
Senate committee on human rights yesterday.
Technical Writing

• Spell out figures one to nine.

• Foreign words are italicized. Scientific names a
re thus written Mussaenda ustii.
• Spell out the word on first mention, then follo
wed by the acronym in parentheses
• Prefer systematic names for technical papers
Tenses

• Abstract
– Past tense
• Theories and Laws
– Present tense
• Methods and Results
– Past tense
• Discussion
– Past tense
– Present tense
Citing References

• Acknowledgment of foreign ideas and their int

ellectual property rights
• Evidence to back-up your own ideas
• Take the form of footnotes, endnotes, or refer
ence section
• Several styles exist and may vary by institution
and journal publication (e.g. APA, MLA)
APA Style

APA (American Psychological Association)

• Short In-text Quotations
– placed in quotation marks
– indicate author (year) page number
– e.g. Dagamac (2010) states “…” (p. 199)
– Cite all authors
• If more than 5, use et al.
APA Style

• Long In-text Quotations (>40 words)

– Omit quotation marks but indent
• Summary and Paraphrase
– Omit page number
Bonus Question II

Favorite Pick-up Lines

153
A. Lumiliit ka yata?
Dati kasi lampas ulo kita,
Ngayon asa puso na kita.
B. Sana piso ka na lang.
At 100 pesos naman ako
Kasi di ako mabubuo ng wala ka.
C. May kandila ba jan?
Patirik naman dito sa dibdib ko
Para sa puso ko na patay na patay sa ‘yo!
D. Do not leave your valuables unattended.
Kaya dito na lang ako sa tabi mo.
APA Style

• Reference Section
– Alphabetical order of cited references
– Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year).
Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number
(issue number), pages.
• dela Cruz, T.E., Kuhn, R., Javier, A.O., Parra, C.M. & Qui
mio, T.H. (2009) Status of the Myxomycete Collection at
the UP-LB-Museum of Natural History (UP-LB-MNH) My
cological herbarium. Philippine Journal of Systematic Bi
ology, 3 (1), 97-111.
APA Style
• Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital
letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title
of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (
pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guid
elines for the treatment of patients with eating disorde
rs (2nd ed.). Washington, DC:
• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title
of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number (is
sue number if available). Retrieved from http://www.s
omeaddress.com/full/url/
Ethical Considerations

Ethical guidelines for

research were
“born in scandal and
reared in protectionism.”

-Carol Levine, 1988

Examples in History

• 1749-1823: Edward Jenner who discovered sm

allpox used his son and neighborhood children
to test smallpox vaccine
• Dr. Richard Strong, Harvard professor of Tropic
al Medicine experimented with cholera on pris
oners in the Philippines killing 13
• 1932-1972: Tuskegee Syphilis study
Animal Welfare Act

• RA 8485 “An Act To Promote Animal Welfare I

n The Philippines, Otherwise Known As “The A
nimal Welfare Act Of 1998”
• Bureau of Animal Industry Regulation
• provide maximum comfort while in transit
• Minimize harm, sickness and death
• Prevent animal cruelty

159
Ethical Principles

• Beneficence
• Non-maleficence
• Justice
• Respect for Person
Ethical Principles

• Beneficence
– Benevolent act to do good/ provide a benefit
• Non-maleficence
• Justice
• Respect for Person
Ethical Principles

• Beneficence
• Non-maleficence
– Do not do/ risk harm (physical, mental, psychologi
cal, social, financial, spiritual)
• Justice
• Respect for Person
Ethical Principles

• Beneficence
• Non-maleficence
• Justice
– Principle: Give what is due to another
– Virtue: Constant will to render what is right
• Respect for Person
Ethical Principles

• Beneficence
• Non-maleficence
• Justice
• Respect for Person
– Inherent dignity of a person
– Must be an end, not a means to an end
– Autonomy to decide on what is best
Applications

• Research must be scientifically valid

• Researchers must be competent
• Acceptable risk-benefit assessment
• Full knowledge and Informed Consent of study
participants
• Confidentiality
Applications

• Research should be subject to independent pe

er-review
• Truthfulness in the writing of results
• No unfounded claims of originality or “first rep
ort” cases
• No “fitting the trend” or statistical manipulatio
n
• Researchers should have no conflict of interest
Ethical Research

Requirements of Researchers, Reviewers,

Authors:
• Must have integrity, honesty, objectivity
• Must not commit scientific misconduct includi
ng fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism
Ethical Research

Authorship results in:

• Prestige
• Promotions
• Grants for future research
Unethical Behavior:
Authorship is sometimes awarded for the sake
of pakikisama, for easy funding or for possible
inclusion into a journal.
Criteria for Authorship

• conception and design of the project, or the d

ata analysis and interpretation
• the drafting or revising of the article

Non-grounds for inclusion as author:

• acquisition of funding
• collection of data
• general supervision
 References
• Alora, A.T. (2006) Bioethics for Students. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Publishi
ng House
• From Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R. & Kjellström, T. (1993) Basic Epidemiology. Geneva
: World Health Organization
• Butler, P.A., & Khanna, J. (1992) Guidelines for Writing a Scientific Paper. Geneva:
World Health Organization. Online available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/
HRP_SW_1992.pdf
• Calimag, M.P., Cuevas, B.M., Delos Santos, N.C., Gonzaga, M.G.G., Inocencio, A.P., R
egal, M.A. & Sison, J.M. (2007) Research Methodology. (Clinical Epidemiology I Mo
dule) Manila: UST Faculty of Medicine and Surgery
• Forlini, G., Bauer, M.B., Biener, L., Capo, L., Kenyon, K.M., Shaw, D.H., Verner, Z. (20
02) Grammar and Composition 4. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
• Greenberg, R.S., Daniels, S.R., Flanders, W.D., Eley, J.W. & Boring, J.R. (2000)
Medical Epidemiology. McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange
 References

• Hamada, I.B. (2006) Good Writing in English. OSSEI National Campus Journalism Le
cture handouts
• Strunk, W. & White, E.B (2000) The Elements of Style. 4th Ed. Boston: Pearson Long
man
• Tischler, M. (nd) Scientific Writing Booklet. http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/marc/
Sci-Writing.pdf
• International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (1991) Uniform Requirements f
or manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals. The New England Journal of Medi
cine. 324(6): 424-428 Available online at http://www.icmje.org/index.html
• Waldhorn, A. & Zeiger, A. (1972) English Made Simple. London: W.H. Allen & Co. Ltd
.
 The End
Thank you for your attention!
Any Questions?

for feedback, you may email the author:

rudolfvkuhn@yahoo.com

172
From Experiments to Presentatio
ns:

Presentation Skills for Scientists

173
Poster Presentations

• A poster is better than giving a talk

– you totally bomb at giving talks
– can be viewed while you nap
– can hang in the department for years
– can reach folks not in your field of research
Poster Presentations

• A poster is better than giving a talk

– you totally bomb at giving talks
– can be viewed while you nap
– can hang in the department for years
– can reach folks not in your field of research
Poster Presentations

• A poster is better than giving a talk

– you totally bomb at giving talks
– can be viewed while you nap
– can hang in the department for years
– can reach folks not in your field of research
Poster Presentations

• A poster is better than giving a talk

– you totally bomb at giving talks
– can be viewed while you nap
– can hang in the department for years
– can reach folks not in your field of research
Poster Presentations

178
Poster Presentations

179
Poster Presentations

180
Poster Presentations

181
Poster Presentations

182
Poster Presentations

183
Remember

184
Remember

185
Remember

186
Remember

187
Remember

188
Remember

189
Remember

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