ECE419 Engineering

Materials

Asst. Prof. 3, Engr. Benito C. Shea, MSc Mgt. Engg.

 Suggested References

Materials Science and Engineering, An

Introduction, 8th Edition, William D. Callister,
Jr.and David G. Rethwisch, 2011, published by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Course Description

Materials Science and Engineering

-deals with the study of structure,
properties and the relationship that exist
between material properties and structural
elements.
-It also includes designing or engineering
the structure of a materials to produce a
predetermined set of properties.
 Course Objectives

At the end of the course, the students are

expected to:
1. Basic principles of materials, its atomic and
crystal structures, components, and
classifications.
2. Understand how elements are the building
blocks for engineering materials.
3. Familiarize and understand with the
properties when making material selection.
 Materials Science – Materials Engineering

The discipline of Materials Science

involves investigating the relationships that
exist between the structures and
properties of materials.
While, Materials Engineering is, on the
basis of these structures-properties
correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties.
Components of Material Science and
Engineering Materials

1. Structure
2. Properties
3. Processing
4. Performance
 Structure - Properties

The structure of a material usually relates

to the arrangement of its internal
arrangement (subatomic structure*)
components.
* Subatomic structure involves electrons within the
individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei.
Structure encompasses the organization of
atoms or molecules relative to one
another.
Property is a material trait or characteristic
in terms of the kind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus .
Properties are made independent of
material shape and size.
 Processing - Performance

The structure of a material will depend on

how it processed, furthermore, a material’s
performance will be a function of its
properties.
Thus, the interralationship between
processing, structure, properties and
performance is linear.

Processing Structure Properties Performance

 Categories of Properties (solid materials)

1. Mechanical, deformation to an applied load

or force. Such as elastic modulus and
strength.
2. Electrical, electrical conductivity and
dielectric constant.
3. Thermal, heat capacity and thermal
conductivity
4. Magnetic, response of a material to the
application of a magnetic field.
5. Optical, the stimulus is electromagnetic or
light radiation.
 Why Study Materials Science and
Engineering
1. The in-service condition must be
characterized for these will dictate the
properties required of the material.
2. Any deterioration of material properties
that may occur during service
operation.
3. Economics, what will the finished
product cost?
 Classification of Materials

Six (6) basic classifications:

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites
5. Semiconductors
6. Biomaterials
 Metals

•Metallic materials are normally

combination of metallic elements with a
valence of 1,2, or 3.
•Extremely good conductors of heat and
electricity.
•Opacity that are not transparent to visible
light.
• Strong yet deformable.
• Use in structural applications.
 Ceramics

•Are compound of metallic and nonmetallic

elements with a valence of 5,6, or 7,
usually in a form of oxides, nitrides and
carbides.
•Includes those composed of clay
minerals, cement and glass.
•Insulative to the passage of electricity and
heat, but are more resistant to high
temperature than metals and polymers.
•Hard but brittle.
 Polymers

•Plastics and rubber materials.

•Organic compounds that are chemically
based on carbon with a valence of 4,
hydrogen with a valence of 1, and other
nonmetallic elements.
•Have large molecular structures.
•Low density and may extremely flexible.
 Composites

•Engineered materials that consist of more

than one material type, such as Fiberglass
(glass fibers embedded within a polymer
material).
•Mechanical characteristics are acquire
from both components.
 Semiconductors

•Materials that have electrical properties

that are intermediate between the
electrical conductors and insulators.
•Electrical characteristics are extremely
sensitive to the presence of minute
concentration of impurities.
•Made possible the advent of integrated
circuitry that has totally revolutionized the
electronics and computer industries.
 Biomaterials

•Employed in components implanted into

human body as replacement for diseased
or damaged body parts.
•must not produce toxic substances.
•Must be compatible with body tissues.
 Advanced Materials

•Utilized high-technology applications (a devise

or product that operates or functions using
relatively intricate and sophisticated principles,
such as thermal protector of space shuttle, fiber-
optics system and LCD.
•Typically a traditional materials whose
properties have been enhanced or modified for
high-performance applications.

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Materials of the Future

Smart materials
Nanotechnology
Modern Materials
 Smart Materials

New and state-of-the-art materials

developed that able to sense changes in
their environments and then response to
these changes in predetermined manners
– traits that are also found in living
organism.

Example: sensor (device that detect an input

signal), actuator (device that perform a
responsive and adaptive function).
 Nanotechnology
• “nano” in nanotechnology derives from the term “nanometer”,
which is one-billionth of a meter.
• Molecular nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter at
the atomic, molecular, or macro level (on the length scale of
approximately 1–100 nanometers).
• Platforms: materials, tools, and structures.
• Materials that are characterized by structural features less
than 100nm can be broadly classified as nanomaterials;
• Materials that has nanometer of 10-9 m scale. as a rule, less
than 100 nanometers (equivalent to approx. 500 atom
diameters).
–Example is the carbon nanotube (CNT), are layers of
graphite seamlessly wrapped into cylinders which are a
few nanometers in diameter, and approximately 10-20
microns long.
• Both the graphitic nature of the material and their large
aspect ratio provides enhanced physical properties, which
exceeds most common filler materials.
 Modern Materials
Materials used for nuclear energy (nonrenewable) and
devices.

Many materials that are use are derived from resources

that are nonrenewable --- not capable for being
regenerated, such polymers where oil is the primary
raw materials.
However, these nonrenewable resources are gradually
depleted because of:
1. The discovery of additional reserves;
2. The development of new materials having
comparable properties with less adverse
environmental impact and ecological factors;
3. Increase in recycling efforts and the development of
nre recycling technologies.
Sources of Energy
 Nuclear materials

consists of materials used in nuclear

systems, such as nuclear reactors and
nuclear weapons.
Most commonly this refers to special
nuclear material (SNM) as defined in the
United States Atomic Energy Act.
Special nuclear materials are plutonium,
uranium-233 and enriched uranium-235.
These materials can potentially be used for
nuclear weapons.
 Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear

chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and
sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a
nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs
in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled.
The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as
an energy source for the generation of electrical
power (Nuclear power).
This is usually accomplished by methods that
involve using heat from the nuclear reaction to
power steam turbines.
 Materials Properties

Asst. Prof. 3, Engr. Benito C. Shea, MSc Mgt. Engg.

 Material Property – a basis for selection

It applies to all classes of materials, but certain

specific properties may apply only to one
particular class of materials.
For example, “flammability” is an important
property of plastics, but it is not important to
metals and ceramics.
Metals and ceramics can be burn or sustain
combustion under some conditions, but when a
designer select a metal or ceramic for an
application, it is likely that he will not consider the
flammability rating of the metal or ceramic.
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Material properties apply to material systems
 Properties and Selection

Major categories to be considered in

materials selection are:

– Chemical Properties
– Physical Properties
– Mechanical Properties
– Dimensional Properties
 1. Chemical Properties

Are material characteristics that relate to

the structure of a material and its formation
from our elements.
Usually measured in a method referred to
as chemical analysis by changing or
destroying a material to measure a
chemical property.
 Chemical Properties

•Composition
–The elemental or chemical components that make up a
material, and the relative proportion of these materials.
•Microstructure
–The structure of polished or etched materials as revealed by
microscope magnification greater than ten diameters; structure
includes the phase present, the morphology of phases, and their
volume fractures.
•Crystal structure
–The ordered, repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules in a
materials.
•Corrosion resistance
–The ability of a material to resist deterioration by chemical or
electrochemical reaction with its environment.
 Composition

The property can be determined by

analytical chemistry techniques.
The quantitaive relationship of elements in
combination of the compound or
compounds, such as Ceramic Aluminum
Oxide, Al2O3
In metals, it means the percentage of the
various elements that make up the metal.
In material selection, composition is a
fundamental consideration.
 Microstructure

Microstructure studies indicate grain size,

phases present, condition of heat
treatment, inclusion, and the like.
It is also an important tool in studying why
a part failed in service.
Grain size, refers to the particle size of a
mass.
 Microstructure

Phase diagrams, like this phase diagram for

water, show whether a substance exists as a
vapor, liquid, or solid at a given temperature and
pressure.
The point where the three lines intersect in a
phase diagram shows the pressure and
temperature where the solid, liquid, and vapor all
exist in equilibrium.
This point, which occurs for water at 0.01°C
(32.02°F), is known as the triple point.
Phase Diagram for Water
 Crystal Structure

The atomic or molecular structure of a material is

not an easy property to determine. Sophisticated
technique such as the use of x-ray diffraction is
required. Structure analysis tells materials body
structure.
Crystal structure applies only in crystalline
materials.
Used to study structure changes during
processing.
Crystallinity affect melting characteristics and
many mechanical properties.
 Example of Metal Crystal Structure

All metals with body-centered cubic

structure get very brittle at subzero
temperature, while, metals with face-
centered cubic structure do not.
 Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion is degradation of a material by

reaction with its environment. It does not
have to involve immersion of a material in
a chemical.
Many polymers become brittle on
exposure to sunlight.
 2. Physical Properties

Are characteristics of materials that pertain

to the interaction of these materials with
various form of energy and with other form
of matter.
Usually pertain to the science of physics
Can be measured without destroying or
changing the material.
 Physical Properties

1. Melting point
2. Curie point
3. Specific heat
4. Thermal conductivity
5. Thermal expansion
6. Heat distortion temperature
7. Dielectric strength
8. Electrical resistivity
 Definitions

1. Melting point, the point at which a material liquefies

on heating or solidifies on cooling.
2. Curie point, the temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials (such as, magnetite) can no longer
magnetized by outside forces.
3. Specific heat, the ratio of the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of
a substance by 1oC or 1oF to the heat required to
raise the mass of water by 1o.
4. Thermal conductivity, the rate of heat flow per unit
time in a homogenous material under-steady state
conditions, per unit area, per unit temperature
gradient in a direction perpendicular to area.
5. Thermal expansion (linear coefficient of), the rate at
which a material elongates when heated. The rate is
expressed as a unit increase in length per unit rise in
temperature within a specified range.
6. Heat distortion temperature, the temperature at which
a polymer under a specified load shows a specified
amount of deflection.
7. Dielectric strength, the highest potential difference
(voltage) that an insulating material of given thickness
can withstand for a specified time without occurrence of
electrical breakdown through its bulk.
8. Electrical resistivity, the electrical resistance of a
material per unit length and cross-sectional area or per
unit length and unit weight.
 Use of Physical Properties

There are so many properties (spectrum of

material properties) that it is not possible to
even briefly describe all of them and how
they are measure.
With the advent of nuclear materials in
engineering, a whole new group of
physical properties has risen.
Physicists measure the neutron absorption
characteristics and susceptibility to
radiation damaged as an example.
3. Thermal Properties – Thermal Conductor

Concerned with the thermal properties of

materials any time that a part is to be used
at some temperature other than the
temperature at which it was fabricated or if
it is expected to perform some heat
transfer function.
It is important to many machine
applications: Heat sealing heads, heat
exchangers, heat sinks, heating platens,
die casting and plastic molding cavities.
 Thermal Expansion of Steel and Aluminum

It is important when dissimilar materials

will be fastened and heated and when
materials are locally heated.

Example: aluminum heat seal block bolted

ton steel was unstable at elevated
temperature, failure to consider the heat
expansion of both aluminum and steel
causes heat distortion, as aluminum
expand at twice the rate of steel.
Temperature and Water Absorption of Polymers

Many polymers lose all useful engineering

properties at temperature above 100oC.
Whenever a polymer is used at elevated
temperature, a thorough study should be made
on its response to the specific environmental
conditions of the intended service.
Water absorption for polymers can be a very
important selection factor if close dimensional
tolerance need to be maintained. A large number
of polymers swell significantly with increases in
ambient relative humidity. The moisture-
absorption factor should always be as low as
possible if polymer part dimension are critical.
 Density and Specific Gravity

Density or specific gravity is useful in

determining the porosity of a material, such
as, ceramics or powder metals.
These materials are made by compacting and
sintering and have varying degrees of
porosity.
In structural applications, porosity is often
undesirable property of the materials.
In powdered metal wear parts, porosity is
usually desired for retention and lubrication
purposes.
4. Optical & Acoustic Properties of Polymers and
Ceramics

The optical properties of polymers and

ceramics are sometimes important
selection factors.
Velocity of sound (an acoustic property) in
a material is an important selection factor
in product design situation.
 5. Mechanical Properties

Are characteristics of material that are

displayed when a force is applied to a
material..
Usually relate to the elastic or inelastic of
the material, and often require the
destruction of the material for
measurement.
Serviceability factors and related mechanical
properties
 STRESS – is tension or anxiety, the
emotional and physical strain caused by
our response to pressure

VS

STRAIN - is a measure of the change in

length of the sample
 Three Major forms of Stress Tests

1. Tension Tests, one of the most common mechanical

stress-strain tests performed. A specimen is
deformed usually to fracture, with a gradually
increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially
along the long axis of a specimen.
2. Compression Tests, is conducted in a manner
similar to the tensile test, except that force is
compressive and the specimen contract along the
direction of the stress.
3. Shear and Torsional Tests, usually performed on
cylindrical solid shafts or tubes. A shear stress is a
function of the applied torque, whereas, shear strain
is related to the angle of twist. Applications such as,
bolts, rivets and drive keys
Standard Tensile Specimen with Circular Cross Section
 Tensile testing machine…..

The machine is designed to elongate the

specimen at a constant rate, and the
continuously and simultaneously using an
extensometer. The stress-strain test typically
takes several minutes to perform and is
destructive; that is the test specimen is
permanently deformed and usually fractured.
The specimen is elongated by the moving
crosshead; load cell and extensometer measure,
respectively, the magnitude of the applied load
and the elongation.
Tensile Testing Machine
 Shear Strength

Shear strength of a material is the stress at

which a shear-loaded member will fail.

Ideally;

Shear strength = 40% of the tensile strength

Shear and Torsional Test
 Elastic Deformation

Deformation in which stress and strain are

proportional.
The degree to which deforms or strains depends
on the magnitude of an imposed stress.
For most metals that are stressed in tension and
at relatively levels, stress and strain are
proportional to each other and the constant of
proportionality E (GPa or psi)6 which is the called
modulus of rupture or Young’s modulus.
For most typical metals, the magnitude of this
modulus range between 45GPa (6.5 x 106 psi).
 Creep-Rupture Strength

The property is used to rate the resistance of a

material to plastic deformation under sustained
load.
Creep can be important selection factor with low-
melting-temperature metals and polymers.
Stress rupture compliments creep data.; it shows
the stress at which a part will fail under sustained
load at elevated temperature.
It is important to metals and ceramics intended
for high temperature service.
Elastic and Shear Maduli for Metals
 Tensile Strength

It is the strength at the maximum on the

engineering stress-strain curve. This
corresponds to the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension; if this stress
at the is applied and maintained, then fracture
will result.
All deformation up to this point is uniform
throughout the narrow region of the tensile
specimen.
Tensile Strength
 Definitions – Mechanical Properties

1. Tensile Strength (pull apart), the ratio of the

maximum load in a tension test to the original
cross-sectional area of the test bar.
2. Yield Strength, the stress at which a material
exhibits a specified deviation from proportionality
of stress and strain.
3. Compression Strength, the maximum compression
stress that a materials is capable of withstanding
(based on original area).
4. Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus, the ratio
of stress to strain in a material loaded below its
yield strength, a measure of rigidity (stiffness).
the degree (GPa) to which a structure deforms or
strains depends on the magnitude of an imposed
stress.
Cont…..

4. Flexural Strength, the outer fiber stress

developed when a material is loaded as a
simply supported beam and deflected to a
certain value of strain.
5. Shear Strength, the stress required to
fracture a shape in a cross-sectional plane
that is parallel to the force application.
6. Hardness, the resistance of a material to
plastic deformation.
7. Impact Strength, the amount of energy
required to fracture a given volume of
material.
Cont….

8. Stress Rupture Strength, the nominal stress at

fracture in a tension test at constant load and
constant temperature.
 Long-term Serviceability

Tensile tests provide information to be

used in comparing the relative strength of
engineering materials.
 Hardness

The hardness of toughness of a materials is

often equated to the wear resistance and
durability.
The ability of the material to absorbed energy to
fracture.

In steels, it serves as a measure to abrasion

resistance and strength.
For ceramics and minerals, hardness is
measured by scratching the surface with
different types of minerals – Mohs hardness test.
 Hardness Testing

Most present-day, hardness tests consists of

pushing or loading a “penetrator” or diameter ball
into the material and optically measuring the
effects.
 Impact Strength

In metals and polymers, the impact strength is

most commonly measured by a pendulum type
impacting machine.
 Impact Tests

Impact strength is used to measure a material’s

ability to withstand shock loading.
It is the energy required to fracture a given
volume of materials.
The unit for this test is ft-lb in english, or joules
j/cm3 in metric system.
 Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanics is based on analysis of the

state of stress at the tip of a crack in a material.
It is measure in a UTM similar to that used in
tensile test.
It is used more for failure analysis of materials
than for design.
 Dimensional Properties

Refers to the size, shape, finish (surface

characteristics) and tolerance on materials
are most important selection factors.
Surface roughness is an example of
dimensional property, it is measurable and
is important for many applications.
–Color, the physical attributes in term of
shades.
–Density, the mass of the material per unit
volume.
–Water absorption, the amount of weight gain
(%) experienced in a polymer after immersion
in water for a specified length of time under a
controlled environment.
 Surface Finish

Surface finish have effects on serviceability thus

can not be neglected in design.
Rough surface causes stress concentrations that
can lead to fatigue failures.
Economically, surfaces with a finish that is
unnecessarily increase fabrication costs.
Used for parts intended for accurate fits, wear
applications, such as soft bearing material,
release characteristics, and even non-functional
surfaces.
 Surface Composition

An important selection property is the chemical

nature of the surface of material.
The thin film coating (thickness of less than 1um)
may be applied, and it is necessary to measure the
thickness of these films; or films may be present due
to fabrication processes that were used to
manufacture a particular material.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used like
microscope to simply show the topological feature of
surfaces. It can magnify greater than x3000.
Useful in electrical applications.
 7. Electrical Properties

WHY study the electrical properties of materials???

It is often times important when materials selection
and processing decisions are being made during the
design of a component or structure.
Such as materials that are used in the several
components of one type of integrated circuit (IC)
package.
The electrical behaviors of the various materials are
diverse. Some need high electrically
conductive(electrical wire), whereas, electrical
insulativity is required of others (such as; protection
package encapsulation)
 Electrical Conduction

One of the most important electrical characteristics

of a solid material is the ease with which it transmits
an electric current.

OHM’s Law relates the current (I) --- or time rate of

the charge passage--- to the applied voltage (V) as
follows:
V = IR
Where: V = volts
I = amperes
R = ohms
 Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law can be very difficult to

understand by anyone who has never had
any basic understanding or training in
basic electricity.
We'll assume that you have some
knowledge of basic electricity.

We'll explain it in terms of water flow!

DON'T GET WET!
 Basic of Ohm’s Law

Ohm's Law is made from 3 mathematical

equations that shows the relationship
between electric voltage, current and
resistance.

Ohm's Law was named after Bavarian

mathematician and physicist George Ohm.
 What is Voltage ?

An analogy would be a huge water tank filled

with thousands of gallons of water high on a
hill.
The difference between the pressure of water
in the tank and the water that comes out of a
pipe connected at the bottom leading to a
faucet as determined by the size of the pipe
and the size of the outlet of the faucet.
This difference of pressure between the two
can be thought of as potential Voltage.
 What is Current?

An analogy would be the amount of flow

determined by the pressure (voltage) of the
water thru the pipes leading to a faucet. The
term current refers to the quantity, volume or
intensity of electrical flow, as opposed to
voltage, which refers to the force or
"pressure" causing the current flow.
 What is Resistance?

An analogy would be the size of the water

pipes and the size of the faucet. The larger
the pipe and the faucet (less resistance), the
more water thatcomes out! The smaller the
pipe and faucet, (more resistance), the less
water that comes out! This can be thought of
as resistance to the flow of the water current.
All three of these: voltage, current and
resistance directly interact in Ohm's law.
Change any two of them and you effect the
third.
 Ohm’s Law = Water Flow

V is voltage, measured in volts (the size of

the water tank),

I is current, measured in amperes (related

to the pressure (Voltage) of water thru the
pipes and faucet), and

R is resistance, measured in ohms as

related to the size of the pipes and faucet
 Application of Ohm’s Law

Typically, Ohm's Law is only applied to

DC circuits and not AC circuits.

* The letter "E" is sometimes used in

representations of Ohm's Law for voltage
instead of the "V".
 Electrical Conductivity

It is used to specify the electrical character of a

material.
It is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity, and is
indicative of the ease with which a material is
capable of conducting an electric current.

The unit is ohm-meters(ohm-m)-1

 Electronic and Ionic Conduction

Within most solid materials a current arises from

a flow of electron, which is termed as electronic
conduction.
An electric current results from the motion of
electrically charged particles, in response to
forces that acts on them from an externally
applied electric field.
Positive charged particles are accelerated in the
field direction, while, negatively charged particles
in the direction opposite.