LEARNING

• A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior

that occurs through experience.

• 2 types:
1. Associative learning: occurs when we make a
connection between two events.
• Classical and Operant Conditioning
• Conditioning: the process of learning
associations.
2. Observational learning: occurs when a person
observes and imitates another’s behavior.
 OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a
behavior change the probability of a behavior’s occurrence.
• Also called instrumental learning
• Active process; behaviors occur spontaneously; the learner
decides whether or not to repeat behavior based on the
consequence
• Voluntary behavior

• Keywords: behavior, consequences

• Important people:
• Thorndike
• Skinner
• Seligman
 THE LAW OF EFFECT
• Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898)
• Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside
• Cat’s used ‘trial and error’ to escape box and get food
• Voluntary behavior changes because of its consequences:
• Pleasant consequences strengthen behavior
• Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior
• Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and
behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
 B.F. SKINNER
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner
• American psychologist
• Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning
• Developed the Skinner Box to test
his concepts
• Used rodents and pigeons
• “Free will is an illusion!”
 SKINNER BOX
• Originally known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber
• Used to control experimental conditions
• Has a lever or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a
reinforcer such as food or water
• The lever or key is connected to devices that record the
animal’s response
ABC’S OF BEHAVIOR
 CONSEQUENCES
Reinforcement Punishment
• A reinforcer is anything that • A punisher is anything that
INCREASES a behavior. DECREASES a behavior.
• + Positive Reinforcement • + Positive Punishment
• Addition of something • Addition of something
pleasant. unpleasant.
• - Negative Reinforcement • - Negative Punishment
• Removal of something • Removal of something
unpleasant. pleasant.
• Two types:
• Escape Learning
• Avoidance Learning
 CONSEQUENCES
Reinforcement Punishment
• Positive Reinforcement • Positive Punishment
• Example: • Example:
• Getting money for • Getting a spanking
grades • Getting a speeding
• Getting a sticker for ticket
good behavior • Negative Punishment
• Negative Reinforcement • Example:
• Example: • Having your phone
• Taking aspirin to get rid taken away
of a headache • Going to jail
• Skipping class vs. getting
kicked out of class
 CONTINGENCY
• Contingency: means that the behavior must serves as
a reliable indicator that the consequence is on its way.
 SHAPING
• Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired
behavior.
• Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior.
• To train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce
these small steps:
• First, to find the slippers
• Then, to put the slippers in his mouth
• Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth
• Last, to bring the slippers to you
 PRIMARY & SECONDARY
REINFORCERS
• Primary Reinforcer:
• Innate value
• Things that are naturally reinforcing
because they satisfy biological drives
such as food, water, sleep, sex

• Secondary Reinforcer:
• Learned/Conditioned value
• Things that we learn are reinforcing
such as money, grades
 TOKEN ECONOMY
• Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be
exchanged for desired rewards.
• Tokens: poker chips, fake money/coins, stickers, tickets…
• Based on applied behavior analysis (ABA): the use of
operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
• Also called behavior modification
• Emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement to change
behavior
 ACQUISITION
• The association is made between the behavior
and the consequence.
• Learning occurs when the learner becomes
aware that the behavior has been reinforced or
punished (consequence).
 GENERALIZATION &
DISCRIMINATION
Generalization: Discrimination:
• Performing a reinforced • Responding appropriately
behavior in a different to stimuli that signal that
situation. a behavior will or will not
• Same behavior different be reinforced.
situation • Different behavior for
different situations
 EXTINCTION &
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
• Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior
when the behavior is no longer reinforced.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior suddenly

resumes after extinction.
 SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
• Continuous Reinforcement:
• Reinforces the desired behavior every time it occurs.
• Learned quickly; easy to extinguish
• Examples:
• Using a token to ride the subway.
• Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or
soda.

• Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:
• Reinforces the desired behavior only part of the time.
• Slower acquisition; harder to extinguish
 RATIO SCHEDULES
• Fixed-ratio schedule:
• Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors.
• Example:
• Workers paid per 100 envelops stuffed
• Getting to leave class after a multiple choice test.

• *Variable-ratio schedule:
• Reinforcement after a varying (unpredictable) number
of behaviors.
• Examples:
• Playing a slot machine
• Fishing/hunting
INTERVAL SCHEDULES
• Fixed-interval schedule:
• Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount
of time has passed.
• Examples:
• Getting a paycheck every two weeks
• Scheduled exams

• Variable-interval schedule:
• Reinforcement of the first behavior after varying
(unpredictable) amounts of time has passed.
• Example:
• POP Quizzes
• Arrival of mail
 SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Schedules Compared
Schedule Response Rate Pattern of Responses Resistance to Extinction
Fixed-ratio Very high Steady response with low ratio. The higher the ratio, the more
schedule Brief pause after each resistance to extinction.
reinforcement with very high ratio.
Variable- Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no Most resistance to extinction.
ratio pauses
schedule
Fixed- Lowest response rate Long pause after reinforcement, The longer the interval, the more
interval followed by gradual acceleration. resistance to extinction.
schedule
Variable- Moderate Stable, uniform response. More resistance to extinction
interval than fixed- interval schedule with
schedule same average interval.
 SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
 IMMEDIATE & DELAYED
REINFORCEMENT
• Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs
immediately after a behavior.
• More effective for lower animals
• Example:
• A rat gets a food pellet when it presses a lever.

• Delayed Reinforcement: A reinforcer that is postponed for a

period of time after a behavior.
• Has an effect on human behavior
• Example:
• A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
 IMMEDIATE & DELAYED
PUNISHMENT
• Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately
after a behavior.
• More effective for lower animals

*Punishment works best when it is immediate and harsh!

• Delayed Punishment: A punisher that is postponed for a

period of time after a behavior.
• Has an effect on human behavior
 DELAYED
GRATIFICATION
• The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward
and wait for a larger delayed reward.
• Immediate & mildly valued vs. delayed & highly valued
• Also called deferred gratification
• Example:
• We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an
A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying.
• Studied by Walter Mischel
• The Marshmallow Test
• Results found that delayed gratification correlated to:
• Higher SAT scores
• higher levels of competence reported by parents & teachers
• Lower rates of substance abuse
• Prefrontal cortex vs. limbic system
 MOTIVATION
•Extrinsic Motivation:
• The desire to perform a behavior due to external
incentives such as rewards and punishments.

•Intrinsic Motivation:
• The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake,
based on internal factors such as needs and fun.
 OVERJUSTIFICATION
•Occurs when extrinsic motivation decreases a person's intrinsic
motivation to perform a behavior or participate in an activity.
•When you pay more attention to the incentive, and less
attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that you receive
from performing a behavior or activity.
• Examples:
• A painter may not paint for pleasure when she is
accustomed to being paid for her work.
• Losing interest in playing the violin after your mother
promises to pay you for each hour of practice.
• Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the rewards
are terminated, children spent significantly less time
playing the games than they had before they ever got
rewards.
 PREMACK PRINCIPLE
• Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement for
less preferred behaviors.
• Preferred: behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic
value/occur more often
• Using an activity that is pleasurable to reward an
activity that is less pleasurable.
• Examples:
• You have to clean your room before you watch TV
• You have to do your homework before you can go
to the movies
 LEARNED
HELPLESSNESS
• An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable
negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
• Studied by Martin Seligman (1967)
• Dogs shocked for prolonged period of time would stop
attempting to escape, even when given the opportunity to do so.
• Has implications in depression.