AIRCRAFT LOADING

Overall Consideration

1
Requirements

Any flying machine, whether it be a manned aircraft or

a guided missile, is required to possess
a structural strength and stiffness which is
adequate to enable it to perform its intended role,
and continue to perform it throughout its life.
The requirements contain much more than conditions
to ensure structural strength and stiffness.
The scope ranges over performance, handling, detail
design of systems and installations and general
operating requirement and procedures.

2
Before an aircraft can be operated it is necessary to
demonstrate that it meets all the relevant
requirements and any special ones which may be
necessary.
When the airworthiness authority is satisfied with
the general performance and design of the aircraft
permission is given to operate it.
The permission may be restrictive in some sense and
may not be approved or recognized by other
authorities, although it is now normal for design
teams to give consideration to all sets of requirements
which are likely to be met with.

3
FAILURE PROBABILITIES

These probabilities of recurrences which may apply to aircraft

structure and systems :-
1. Frequent
An event likely to occur often during the life of an aircraft,
numerically more frequent than once in 1000 hours or flights
as appropriate.
2. Reasonably probable
An event which may occur several times in the life of an
aircraft, that is once in 103 to 105 hours or flights
3. Remote
Unlikely to occur to any given aircraft in its total life, but
which may occur several times in the total fleet of that
aircraft. Once in 105 to 107 hours or flights

4
4. Extremely remote
Unlikely to occur at all to any aircraft but which
nevertheless must be considered.
One occurrence in more than 107 hours or flights.
5. Extremely improbable
So unlikely that it does not have to be considered
as a possibility.
Numerically it is relevant to the case where a
sequence of extremely improbable failures could, in
total, amount to an extremely remote one.

5
Loading Action

The aim of loading action analysis is to

obtain cases which enable the airframe to be
designed and stressed.
Many of the methods used for estimating the
loads acting on aircraft are
complex and involve a knowledge of parameters
which can only be determined accurately at the
later stages of the design.
6
 Loads and Factors
Cause of loads
Loads experienced by aircraft fall into two
categories.

1- loads result directly from

a) The action of the pilot or the autopilot
which are classified as
manoeuvring loads since they occur as
the aircraft carries out its intended
role.

7
 Cabin pressure differential and
the effect of kinetic heating at
higher Mach number can be added to
the above

8
The second type of loads arise because of
2- The environment in which the aircraft
operates.
These may be due to such things as :-
a) Atmospheric turbulence,
b) pressure differential,
c) kinetic heating or
d) runway unevenness.
Basically this type of loading would not occur in ideal
situation but has to be tolerated in practice.

9
Frequency of Loads

Whether the loads be “manoeuvre” or

“environmental” they have to be dealt with in two
ways for design purposes.
1. There are the so called “limit load” conditions.
The limit load is the actual maximum load of a
particular case which can be experienced in
normal conditions.
Thus a failure due to the application of limit
load must be in the extremely remote
category.

10
That is the limit load is one which can be
anticipated to be reached, but not exceeded,
in 107 hours or flights.
It is in fact the actual maximum load for a
particular manoeuvre or
environmental condition and represents the
most severe isolated load intensity.

11
2. There is a set of loads of varying magnitude which is experienced
by the airframe throughout its life and which arise in any given
category.
Often the majority of these loads are small in comparison with the
limit value, but each may damage the structure and it is necessary
to ensure that the total accumulated damage due to all of them is
within the capability of the structure.

These loads may arise in a specific way and be of known magnitude

and frequency, an example being cabin pressurization.

The majority of these loads cannot be dealt with as simply as this

and some, especially those due to atmospheric turbulence or runway
unevenness are essentially random in nature.

12
 Load Factors
Some factors are used for the structure design
of the aircraft superimposed on the limit
load.

They are called

a) the proof factor,
b) the ultimate factor and
c) the load factor.
13
Loading factors
Load factors are applied to limit load cases.
There are two factors which are used :-
1. The first is the Proof Factor which is 1.125 for
military and 1.0 for civil aircraft.
Under proof loading conditions the airframe must
not distort permanently more than a small, specified
amount, usually 0.1 – 5% permanent strain
depending upon the type of loading.
This factor is intended to ensure that the structure
will always return to shape after design loading has
been applied.

14
Secondly there is an Ultimate Factor which in
most instances is 1.5 times the limit load in both
military and civil requirements.
The Ultimate Factor is
a safety factor on the limit load and is intended
to cover such items as
variation of material and structural properties
outside the specified limits,
deterioration in service,
inadequacy of load and stress analysis
assumptions,
and possible flight of the aircraft just outside the
stated design limitations.

15
During maneuvres or flight through turbulence additional
loads are imposed which increase or decrease the net
loads on the structure of the aircraft. The amount of this
additional load depends upon the severity of the maneuvre
or the turbulence, and its magnitude is measured in terms
of load factor.
The load factor is a multiplying factor defines load in
terms of weight.
The load factors are based on statistical data.
Transport aircraft have values 2 to 3 while fighters aircraft
have values 6 to 8.

16
life factor

Designers should ensure that the structure is

able to continue resisting any design load for a
longer period than its design period. The
structure should be designed to have an
estimated life or safe life three or more times
the actually intended in service. This ratio of
the demonstrated life to the actually intended
is called the life factor.

17
The actual numerical value of the life factor
is determined by the statistical accuracy of
the available design information, especially
in relation to actual tests on both
components of the structure and the whole
airframe.

18
Structure Life
Measures are necessary to safeguard the
integrity of the structure when it is subjected to
numerous repetitions of loads over a life which
may be more than 40000 flying hours.
Further, flight in transonic and supersonic
regimes introduces nonlinearity of load
distributions and possibly temperature effects
due to kinetic heating.
Each load in the complete spectrum of loads
appropriate to a particular case has to be
considered, and since the load is usually
relatively low the strain resulting from it is
elastic, the effect of stress concentration is of
vital importance. 19
The effect of stress concentrations is of vital
importance.
The cumulative damage from all the loads must
be evaluated to ascertain the final integrity of
the structure at the end of its life.
As accurate specification of the load spectrum
is difficult , it is necessary to incorporate
safeguard to cover the unknowns.

20
 Safe Life
Life factor
The actual numerical value of the life factor is
determined by the
accuracy of the available design information in
relation to
actual tests on components of the structure and
to factor each individual load and stresses
resulting from it, before evaluating the safe life.
It is a complex process but will enable a more
reliable result to be obtained.

21
Damage tolerant design
Failsafe
It is not unreasonable to accept that the loading
and its effect upon the structure cannot be
accurately predicted and that any factors applied
to ensure the integrity of the structure are a
design penalty.
The structure should be designed so that should a
failure occur there is always an alternative load
path to enable the aircraft to complete its
mission safely.

22
The failure would have to be easily
detectable on subsequent inspection and
repairable. This is the Damage Tolerance
approach.
It Should be pointed out that any properly
designed structure will possess both
damage tolerance and safe life feature.

23
 In practice the degree of damage which may be
tolerated is determined by the rate of crack propagation
relative to inspection intervals.
There are some parts of the aircraft where it is
impossible to incorporate the damage tolerance idea,
so it important to introduce a reliable means of failure
warning which indicate the onset of a crack before it
becomes catastrophic.
This is done on mechanical components such as rotor
blades.
It is the practice of the designers of aircraft to specify life
in the context of repairs and replacements.

24
Statistical design
Ideally the eventual way to design a structure
would be entirely based upon a statistical
approach.
Damage tolerance features would still be
incorporated but the emphasis would be on
designing the structure to be able to
withstand any possible load it might experience
and the total of such possible loads.

This may basically would involve an accurate

knowledge of :-

25
1. The total loading spectrum on the most
unfortunate aircraft of the type to be
produced.
2. The maximum limit load to a stated
probability
3. The behaviour of the structure and its
individual members under the total loading
spectrum and the maximum limit load.

26
Loading Cases

All airplanes are designed to possess symmetry

about a vertical plane passing through the centreline
of the body. However manned aircraft are asymmetric
with reference to a horizontal plane passing through
the body centreline.
Arrangement possessing single symmetry can be
subjected to both symmetric and asymmetric loading
cases.

27
Categories of load cases
1. Symmetric flight case :-
This arises either due to pilot initiated manoeuvre in
the longitudinal or pitching plane or from asymmetric
vertical air turbulence or gust.
2. Asymmetric flight case :-
This arises when a pilot operates his rudder to initiate
a yawing motion or his ailerons to initiate rolling.
Also engine cut has the same effect.
Horizontal air turbulence, a cross wind, or a non
symmetric vertical gust will also give rise to asymmetric
loads.

28
Additional loads

a) grounds loads
b) Longitudinal loads
c) Local loads

29
3. Ground case :-
From the point of view of the undercarriage design the
normal take off and landing loads are basically symmetric,

but landing with sideways drift introduces an asymmetric

component, and

there is also a special asymmetric one wheel landing case.

These landing loads are the result of the vertical deceleration
which occurs when the aircraft lands or encounters a runway
irregularity and they are associated with fore and aft
deceleration.

Ground maneouvering is to be considered as well.

30
4. Longitudinal load case :-
Fore and aft loading usually quite small on
aircraft except for arrester landings and
crash cases.

31
 Design Speeds
The structural loading requirements are
expressed in terms of a set of design speeds,
complemented where appropriate by the
corresponding Mach numbers.
Equivalent airspeed is used in most cases and it
is that speed related to the sea level air density
used to define the dynamic pressure.

32
Stalling speed, VS

It is defined as the minimum steady flight speed at which

control can be maintained
VS = (2ngm/ρ0SCNMAX)½ (1)

Where ρ0 is the sea level density

VS is an equivalent air speed
S is the wing area
g is gravitational acceleration
m is the mass
n is the nominal acceleration factor, one in level
flight
CNMAX is the maximum normal force coefficient at a Mach number
corresponding to a true speed at a given altitude . It is
normally equal to the lift coefficient

33
There are some definitions of stalling speed

a) VS1 is the stalling speed in a specified

condition, typically with high-lift devices, and
undercarriage retracted and with engines idling.
b) VS0 is the stalling speed in the landing
configuration

34
Manoeuvre speed VA

It is the lowest speed at which the aircraft can

attain the prescribed maximum limit normal
manoeuvre factor n1
VA = VS1/(n1)½ (2)

35
Design cruising speed VC

This speed is intended to cover the maximum

normal operating condition speed VNO.
JAR-25 (large aircraft) VC must be sufficiently
greater than the gust design speed VB.
Thus VC =VB+1.32Uref (Uref reference gust velocity )
providing that VC does not exceed the maximum
speed in level flight for the corresponding
altitude
36
for light civil aircraft (JAR-23) VC (knots) is equal
to 33(W/S)½ for W/S below 20 lb/ft2 and
to
28.6(W/S)½ for W/S of 100lb/ft2 except for
aerobatic aircraft where the value is 36(W/S)½

W is weight in lbs (mg) and S is the reference

wing area in ft2.
37
Maximum horizontal speed VH

VH is defined as the maximum speed attainable

in level flight with powerplant set at the
maximum
continuous cruise condition.

For military aircraft designed for dive bombing or

ground attack duties VH is assumed to be equal
to VD
38
Design (diving) speed, VD

It is not the maximum speed the aircraft could

attain in a dive of specified steepness.
In case of aircraft designed to JAR-25 the
definition depends on whether the aircraft is
designed to operate into the transonic range or
not.
For an aircraft flying at low speed VD can be set
at 1.25VC or MD at 1.25MC
39
Gust speed VB

It is the design speed for maximum gust intensity.

JAR-25-335 state that VB may not be less than
VBMIN = VS1(nG+1)½
Where nG is the incremental load factor resulting
from the aircraft encountering a gust of
magnitude
Uref when flying at a speed VC
VBMIN need not exceed VC.
40
To determine VBMIN the air gust is assumed to

be 20 m/s (66ft/s) EAS between sea level and

6097 m (20000 ft) then falling linearly to 11.6

m/s

(38ft/s) EAS at 15240 m (50000 ft)

41
 Flap and high-lift devices
design speeds
JAR-25 defined VF for each flap or high-lift device setting
as not less than

a) 1.6 times the stalling speed at the maximum take

off mass with the high lift device in the take-off
position, or
b) 1.8 times the stalling speed at the design landing
mass with the high-lift devices in the approach
position, or
c) 1.8 times the stalling speed at the landing mass
with the high-lift devices in landing position.
42
 Flight Loading
Due to induced manoeuvre by the pilot or auto
pilot the aircraft will change from steady level
flight condition to a climbing or diving path.
The greatest loads arise when the aircraft pulls
out of a dive or when it is in a banked turn.
Symmetric manoeuvre is a general case
covering
a number of specific loading conditions
43
For an aircraft entering a dive from steady level
flight ( see fig) the pilot moves the pitch
motivator ( elevator or horizontal stabilizer) to
induce a nose down pitching acceleration.
The aircraft gains a nose-down pitching velocity
‘q’ causing it to fly on a circular path with a
corresponding centrifugal load which has to be
balanced by the lift which is in this case is
negative.
44
When the aircraft approaches the
required angle of dive the pilot uses
opposite motivator deflection to arrest
the pitching velocity. At the end of the
dive reverse procedure is done.
In general the aircraft must be designed
to withstand lifting loads greater or less
than the weight, and with or without
nose-up or nose-down pitching
accelerations.
45
46
To ensure safety, governmental agencies
have put some requirements for
structural integrity.
Load factor (n) expresses structure-
strength requirements which associated
with the n-V diagram.

47
 Velocity-Load Diagram (V-n )
or
Flight envelope (n-V )diagram
The symmetric flight loading can be described
by a flight envelope of forward velocity and
acceleration perpendicular, or normal to the
flight path. The greatest air loads usually come
from the generation of lift during high-g
manoeuvre. The factor ‘n’ represents the
manoeuvreing of an aircraft as a multiple of the
standard acceleration due to gravity. In
operational circumstances usual manoeuvre
loads lie within the boundaries of the envelope.
48
49
Newton’s Law states that change from an
equilibrium state requires an additional applied
force which is associated with some form of
acceleration, ‘a’. When applied in the pitch
Plane, the force appears as an increment in lift,
∆L, and would overcome the weight to an
increased altitude initiated by rotation of the aircraft

50
ΔL = centrifugal acceleration X mass
= a * W/g
The resultant force is going to be
L + ΔL = W + (a * W/g) = W(1 + a/g)
L is the lift equalling weight W thus load factor
‘n’ is defined as
n = (1 + a/g) = (L/W) + (ΔL/W) = 1 + ΔL/w
The load factor ‘n’ indicates the increase in
force contributed by the centrifugal
acceleration, ‘a’.

51
n = 2 indicates a twofold increase in weight
i.e a 100 kg person would experience a 200 kg
weight. The load factor ‘n ‘ is also the g-load
When an aircraft experiences a force more
than its normal weight it is called Positive
load and vice versa. A high g-load damages
the human body with the human limits of the
instantaneous g-load higher than for
continuous g-load.
52
g-load is associated with pitch plane manoeuvres,
pitch changes are related to change in the angle of
attack ‘α’, and the velocity V.
There is a variation in CL up to its limit of Clmax in
both positive and negative sides of the wing
incidence to airflow.
This is the relation represented in the n-V diagram.

53
Limits- Load and Speeds
Limit load is defined as the maximum load that
an aircraft can be subjected to in its life cycle.
Under the limit load, any deformation recovers
to its original shape and would affect structural
integrity. Structural performance is defined in
terms of stiffness and strength. Stiffness is
related to flexibility and deformations and has
implications for aeroelasticity and flutter.
54
Low speed limit

The low speed limit in a V-n diagram is

established at the velocity at which the
aircraft stalls in an acceleration flight load of
‘n’ until it reaches the limit load factor.

55
The main design of an aircraft can be given by
stating the limiting values of the acceleration and
speed in addition to maximum value of the
applied gust velocity. The design loading
requirements for a certain aircraft could be
stated as follows “”The proposed aircraft shall be
designed for applied positive and negative
accelerations of + 6.0 g and – 3.5 g respectively
at all speeds from that corresponding to Clmax up
to 1.4 times the maximum level speed.
Furthermore the aircraft shall withstand any
applied loads due to a 30 ft/sec gust acting in
56
any direction up to the restricted speed of 1.4
times the maximum level speed. A design
factor of safety of 1.5 shall be used on these
applied loads.””
The design requirements can be represented by
plotting load factor and velocity to obtain a
diagram generally called
“ Velocity-acceleration diagram”.
The results of this specification would be similar
to the diagram shown in the following slide
57
58
The left-hand corner of the diagram are
determined by the stalling characteristics of the
aircraft in both upright and inverted flight. The
upper left-hand corner is the intersection of the
stall line and the maximum normal acceleration
factor ‘n’ at the manoeuvre speed VA. The right-
hand corners are determined by the maximum
speed conditions of the aircraft. The extreme
right-hand side being the design speed VD

59
60
There are four definitive values of the normal
acceleration factor in any given case. They are
n1 the maximum positive, upright, value
n2 the lower normal acceleration factor at VD
n3 the maximum negative, inverted, value
n4 the maximum positive value at VD when it
differs from n1

61
The n-V diagram describes all points
corresponding to every specified symmetric
manoeuvre the aircraft is permitted to perform.
The corners correspond to the maximum
manoeuvres permitted on the assumed
probability of occurrence and it is sufficient to
examine these corners when considering
loading cases.

62
As can be seen from the fig above the maximum
lift load factor equals 1.0 at level flight stall speed.
The aircraft can be stalled at a higher speed by
trying to exceed the available load factor, such as
in a steep turn.
The point at the extreme top left corner, (can be
called high angle of attack A.O.A ) is
the lowest speed at which the maximum load
factor can be reached without stalling.

63
At this part of the envelope the load on the
wing is approximately perpendicular to the
flight direction, not
the body-axis vertical direction.
At high angle of attack the load direction may
actually be forward of the aircraft body-axis
vertical direction, thus causing
a forward load component on the wing
structure

64
65
The point at the top right of the diagram (maximum
speed or dive speed) represent the maximum
dynamic pressure and maximum load factor.
At this condition the aircraft is at low angle of
attack due to
high dynamic pressure and the load is
approximately vertical in the body-axis.
For subsonic aircraft max. or dive speeds is about
50% higher than level-flight cruise speed and for
supersonic about Mach 0.2 faster

66
Gust loads
Transport aircraft encountering air turbulence
may experience load factors due to gust
ranging from a negative 1.5 to a positive 3.5 g
or more.
When aircraft experience a gust the effect is
increase or decrease in angle of attack.
The fig below show the effect of an upward gust
of velocity U.

67
68
The change in angle of attack is approximately U/V and the
change in aircraft lift is proportional to the gust velocity
Δα = tan-1 (U/V) ≡ U/V
ΔL = 1/2ρV2S(CLαΔα)
= 1/2ρVSCLαU
Resulting change in load factor is
Δn = ΔL/W = ρUVCLα/(2W/S)
Increment in the load factor in this case assumed that the gust
instantly affected the aircraft which unrealistic, as the gust
follow a cosine-like intensity increase as the aircraft flies
through, allowing it time to react to the gust.

69
 To account for this effect a gust alleviation factor
K was devised to measure gust data.
Thus the gust velocity U in the equation above
Regarding increment in load factor can be
defined as follows
U = KUde
For subsonic K = 0.88μ/(5.3+μ)
Supersonic K = μ1.03/(6.95+μ1.03)
Mass ratio μ = 2(W/S)/ρgcCLα
Where Ude is the standard vertical gust speed
70
The loading of an aircraft in flight can be placed in
the following ;-

a) The forces and moments present while the

aircraft is in steady flight, referred to as the
trim condition.

In case of a conventional aircraft having a

vertical plane of symmetry the loading in the
trim condition is limited to that plane, that is,
to longitudinal forces and moments.

71
b) The forces and moments consequent upon
the departure of the aircraft from the trim
conditions as a result of control inputs or
atmospheric disturbances, referred to as
TRANSIENT LOADING

Static stability and the dynamic stability

characteristics have an influence upon the
loading when the aircraft performs
manoeuvres or encounters atmospheric
turbulence.
72
 Forces and moments in
symmetric flight
Aircraft in symmetric flight has three degrees of
freedom, they are,
translation in flight direction,
translation perpendicular to the flight direction, and
rotation in pitch about centre of gravity.
Forces and moments experienced by the aircraft
arise from aerodynamic, powerplant, inertial and
atmospheric effects which are illustrated in fig below :

73
The forward velocity along the flight path is
defined by the wind axis OX’ is V0 and
it is inclined at an a climb angle y relative to the
earth axis OX”.
The body axis OX is inclined at an angle of attack
αB relative to the wind axis.
The aircraft is pitching relative to the earth axis
with an angular velocity dθ/dt.
The acceleration along the flight path is ‘mg’ and
perpendicular to it the acceleration is ‘ng’ .
(m and n are acceleration factors ) 74
75
 lWB lift on aircraft
lT horizontal stabilizer lift
D total drag
T net engine thrust
m aircraft mass ( weight/gravitational acceleration)
C MAC
hc distance of centre of gravity behind leading edge
Hoc distance of aerodynamic centre behind leading
edge
L’T distance along body from cg to the point of
application of lT
76
 ky radius of gyration of aircraft in pitch about cg
ZD perpendicular distance of drag axis below cg
ZT perpendicular distance of thrust axis below cg
ßT angle of the thrust axis to the body axis
M0 pitch moment at zero lift
MT pitching moment due to the deflection of the
elevator relative to the aerodynamic centre of
the horizontal stabilizer
Mθ damping pitch moment
V0 velocity of aircraft along the flight direction
ρ local density of the air
77
 For an aircraft in level flight ‘ϒ’ is zero and if the thrust is equal to
the drag, m is unity.
The drag force usually passes close to the cg so ZD may be
neglected as well as Mθ, MT.
For tailless aircraft Mθ and MT arte significant and should
considered.

Resolving forces along the line of flight OX’ axis

T- D – mgm = 0
lWB + lT - ngm = 0
M0 - lWB (H0 – h) c - lT L’T + TZT - mky2θ = 0
horizontal stabilizer load is
lT = [ M0 + ngm(h – H)c + TZT – ky2θ]/ L’T
78
 Wing-body lift lWB

Dynamic pressure q = (ρV0EAS2)/2

79
 Aeroelastic considerations
and
Stiffness requirements
In addition to ensuring that a flying vehicle is
structurally strong enough to withstand the loads
imposed upon it, it is essential that it should
possess adequate stiffness.
Reason for this is that the structure must be capable
of retaining its design shape so that
any deformation which may occur is not so large as
to seriously impair the aerodynamic performance of
the vehicle.

80
 Airframe distortion introduces both
structural and
aerodynamic effects,
thus both the static and dynamic properties of
the aircraft be considered and this requires
consideration of the aerodynamic and
structural inertias and
damping as well as
stiffness.

81
Examples
Examples to understand how various effects
occur.
a) problem of control reversal
Consider an aileron which is deflected
downwards to cause the aircraft to roll by
increasing the local lift.
This lift increment due to control deflection
acts well aft on the chord, almost aft of the
local section centre of twist and introduces a
tendency for the section to pitch nose down
relative to wing root. 82
 If the wing is insufficiently stiff in torsion this
downward pitching will introduce a downward lift
increment of the
same order of magnitude as that produced by
the aileron.
At a certain speed, known as
reversal speed, the
two forces are equal and the control lose its
effectiveness.
At higher speeds a roll in a direction opposite to
that intended will occur.
83
Wing torsional divergence
Consider the wing in fig.
The aerodynamic lift loading
located along span wise axis at a
particular chord-wise station at a
distance ec forward of the
structural flexural axis.
The effect of this is to twist the
local section through an angle Ѳ.

84
The aerodynamic load increment due to angle
Ѳ is :-
{(ρ V2c/2).dy} a1Ѳ where
V is the airspeed
c is the local chord
a1 is the local lift curve slope
the corresponding moment about the flexural
axis is :-
MA = (ρ/2)V2a1Ѳec2 dy

85
This moment is restricted by the torsional
stiffness of the structure. If the stiffness is
mѲ then the torque due to deflection Ѳ is
MS = mѲ. Ѳ
When MA is less than MS the strip is stable
but if the opposite it is of static instability.
That is the application of aerodynamic forces
will cause a continuously increasing angle, Ѳ,
until the wing break.
The critical case is when
MA =MS that is when
mѲ = (ρ/2)V2a1ec2dy 86
The torsional divergence speed for the strip
is :-
VT = {2mѲ/ρa1ec2dy}1/2
The divergence speed for the wing as a
whole requires an integration of both the
aerodynamic and structural moments over
the span and it depends upon the planform
shape and structural section properties.

87
 Inertia and Mass
distribution

The structural density of a wing is defined as :-

δW = (W1+kW2)/S1c1 where
S1 is the wing area outside the fuselage
c1 is the corresponding mean chord
W1 is the corresponding wing weight
W2 is the weight of non-structural loads in the
wing
k is a factor which is usually taken as 0.5
88
When the wing is of low structural density the
location of the inertia loads tend to be more
critical than if the reverse is true, but it must
be clear that this is really only a relative effect.
If heavy concentrated loads or fuel tanks are
housed within or below a wing they should be
located so that their individual centres
of gravity are as far forward as possible of the
flexural axis, should it be not possible, they
should be located as near to the root as can be
achieved.
89
In case of wing fuel tanks the system should be
arranged to keep the fuel centre of gravity as
far forward as is feasible in all tank conditions.
Where external and wing tips fuel tanks are
used it is essential to ensure that the
centre of gravity of the fuel does not move too
far forward or far backward.
Very large wing inertias, such as lift engine
pods, present a difficult problem.
The feasible solution is the provision of rear fins
to increase the aerodynamic damping. This was
been used on some large external fuel tanks. 90
 Stiffness Criteria and
considerations
Wing stiffness
One of the most important stiffness
requirements is that concerned with
wing torsional stiffness.
Three main considerations that decide the
minimum value required are
flutter,
aileron reversal and
divergence.
91
Flutter
To ensure that what is called classical flutter did not
occur earliest attempts resulted in the use of a wing
torsional stiffness criteria of the form :-
k = (1/VD){mѲ/ρdcm2}1/2
Where
k is a non dimensional criteria dependent upon wing density
VD is design dividing speed
d is 90% of distance from root to tip of wing
cm is wing mean chord
mѲ is torsional stiffness relative to the wing root at a section 70% of the
distance from the root to tip
ρ is air density

92
The value of k arranged to ensure the flutter
speed would be 1.5 to 2 times the
design diving speed.
This formula makes no allowance for sweep,
Compressibility, aspect ratio, taper ratio and
certain other important criteria.
The value of mѲ is defined as that concentrated
torsion couple located at 0.7 semispan which
would give one radian rotation relative to the
root.
93
 As subsonic compressibility effects should be considered
in accordance to civil aircraft requirements an appropriate
correction is done :-
k = (1/VD)(mѲ/dc2)1/2(1-M2)1/4
where
M is the Mach number appropriate to VD
mѲ is asymmetrical stiffness measured at 0.75 semispan
k = 0.024{1+(δW/2)} or 0.36 whichever smaller or
If the wing engines forward of the leading edge are fitted
k = 0.028 for 0<δW<2
where δW is wing density.

94
 To allow for other important factors the following formula can be
used to calculate the flutter speed which could be at least 1.25VD
VF ={mѲ/ρdcm2}1/2{(0.9-0.33k)(1-0.1r)/[0.9(g-0.1)(1.3-h)]}
*sec3/2(Λ-π/16)f(M) ##
where
VF is critical flutter speed
mѲ is antisymmetric torsional stiffness at 0.7 semispan
g is location of inertia axis subject to 0.35<g<0.55
h is location of flexural axis aft of the leading edge
k is taper ratio provided 0.25<k<1.0
r is stiffness ratio
f(M) = (1-M2)1/4 Mach No. correction where 0<M<0.8
= 0.775 where 0.8<M<0.95
Λ is sweep back of a line 5% behind line of maximum thickness rad.
95
Note :-
This formula does not apply to swept
wing aircraft with a fuselage of low
pitching inertia or for
wings of low aspect ratio, wings carrying
twin booms, those with large
concentrated masses or those flying at
transonic or supersonic speeds.

96
Aileron Reversal
For ensuring sufficient wing torsional stiffness to
prevent aileron reversal is given by :-
VR = {(2mѲ/ρsCm2)(a2/a1m)}1/2 where :-
VR is aileron reversal speed
s is semispan
mѲ is anti-symmetric stiffness at the mid aileron section
cm is wing mean chord
a1 is the wing curve slope
a2 is lift curve slope due to aileron angle
m is slope curve of nose down moment
VR must be at least 1.15VD
This applies only to conventional wings 97
Tailplane Stiffness

Stiffness requirements for a tailplane to which is attached

an elevator .
k = (1/VD){Tt/(btct2/2)}1/2f(M)
Tt is tailplane torsional stiffness measured at 0.8
semiplane outboard of centreline and perpendicular
to the main spar, or relative to fuselage at root if
tailplane is moveable
bt is span of tailplane measured along spar
ct is geometric mean chord of tailplane elevator
k is stiffness, ≥ 0.036 for tailplane without fins and
rudder and 0.045 if these are fitted
98
Elevator stiffness and flutter
For reasons of stability and control, stiffness
criteria for elevators
k = (1/VD){Te/sece2}1/2f(M) where
Te is elevator torsional stiffness measured
between the body side and 0.1be from the
extreme tip, perpendicular to the hinge line.
be is elevator span
se is elevator semispan
ce is mean chord behind the hinge
k = ≥0.024 for plain elevators or ≥0.028 for balanced elevators

99
 Control Surface
Mass Balance
Mass balances can be either concentrated
weights or distributed.
Mass balance is not required on aircraft whose
VD is less than 130 knots.
The mass balance requirements for all
controls state that
at the neutral position and at plus or minus 100
deflection the product of inertia for the complete
control shall be zero, and is defined as
Σm.x.y
100
m is an element of control surface mass
x is distance of m from hinge line measured
normal to hinge line.
y is the perpendicular distance of m from a
fore and aft axis.
This axis is normally the wing root for ailerons
and the body torsion axis for rudders and
elevators
101
 Ground Load Cases
The vertical energy of a landing aircraft is
absorbed
in the tyre,
shock strut system and
the airframe.
It is dissipated largely by the shock strut, which
may include the hop damper in a bogie layout,
during the initial impact and subsequent
rebounds of the aircraft.
102
These rebounds do not normally imply
that the wheels leave the ground after
the initial impact, but that
the aircraft centre of gravity oscillates
vertically on
the shock strut system.

103
The performance of shock strut
unit is expressed in terms of a
load-deflection diagram as shown
in fig. load

The form of diagram depends dynamic static

R
upon the type of shock strut used
and the rate of load application. c Deflection stroke

The majority of aircraft use either R is maximum reaction

an air or oil spring to absorb the
energy and an oil dashpot to
dissipate it.
R = λP, where P is proportion of
weight carried by shock strut
λ is maximum reaction factor

104
The efficiency of a shock absorber is defined as the
ratio of the energy absorbed to that equivalent to
the product of the maximum load and stroke.
It is thus the ratio of the area under the load-
deflection diagram to the area of the rectangle
circumscribing it.
A simple spring with a linear characteristic has an
efficiency of 50% and under static conditions
many shock absorbers approach this condition.

105
Under dynamic conditions appropriate to
landing the efficiency can be much higher.
Typical values are 80% of a liquid (oil)
spring and 85% for an oleo-pneumatic
system.
These characteristics are obtained by
introducing valves into the units so that the
initial stiffness is relatively high but at a
given dynamic pressure they open to
reduce the stiffness.
106
 Tyres have a spring characteristic such that the
efficiency is 47% which implies that the load-
deflection curve is slightly hollowed out from a
linear characteristic.
When designing an undercarriage unit the tyre
size is chosen on a load capacity basis. The
number of tyres and pressure are determined
by such matters as runway loading and stowage
when retracted.
Tyre size is a function either of the maximum
static load or the limiting dynamic load which is
about three times the static criterion. 107
The vertical energy equation of a landing
aircraft is written in the form :-
Wv2/2g = W.n.z where (1)
v is the vertical velocity of descent at the
moment of impact
W is the aircraft weight
n is the mean normal deceleration factor
z is the vertical movement of the centre of
gravity required to bring it to rest.

108
The energy absorbed in the system must be
equivalent to the potential energy on the right
hand side of this expression.
Under normal circumstances it is required that
this energy should be entirely absorbed in the
main tyre and shock absorber units.
In most cases the main shock absorber can be
given a characteristic which is defined in terms
of the vertical travel of the axle, so that the
reference load is also vertical.

109
In these circumstances a total load of “W” on
all the shock absorber units being used is
equivalent to
the static condition and if
there are “N” units and the maximum load on
each unit during landing is “λW/N” then “λ’
represents the maximum vertical acceleration
of the centre of gravity.
The total energy absorbed in each shock
absorber and tyre unit is
(λW/N)(ηsS+ηtSt) where (2)
110
λW/N is the maximum vertical load
S is the vertical axle travel appropriate to
λW/N
St is the tyre deflection “ “ “ “ “ “
ηs, ηt are the shock absorber and tyre energy
absorption efficiencies appropriate to
vertical motion and λW/N
λ is known as the vertical reaction factor

111
Equation (2) can be written as
energy absorbed = P(ηsS+ηtSt)
combining (1) and (2)
Wv2/2g = N(λW/N)(ηsS+ηtSt)
or v2/2g = λ(ηsS+ηtSt) (3)

112
A short undercarriage is the lightest and hence
within the limitation of ground geometry the
stroke should be made as small as possible.
Short stroke may imply a high value of the
reaction factor, λ, and since this implies also a
high load, any weight saved by the use of a
short undercarriage may be more than offset
by the heavier construction and in particular
the fatigue effects on the airframe.
For the majority of aircraft “λ” varies between
1.5 and 2.5 with a definite tendency to lower
values on aircraft designed on low normal
manoeuvre factors and long life. 113
A fighter type aircraft has a high strength
airframe and can tolerate a value of “λ” of
three or more without undue penalty.
Naval aircraft have increased energy
absorption requirements to meet coupled
with severe size restrictions so reaction
factors of 4 are common.
Strokes are of the order of 10 to 18 inches
and may exceed to 2 feet.

114
Energy absorption
requirements
The requirements are specified in terms of design
vertical descent velocities.
The loading cases are directly derived from
velocities, thus proof and ultimate values are
quoted.
The ultimate values are 1.18 times the proof
value for military aircraft and 1.2 for civil aircraft,
so that the ultimate energy requirements are 40%
to 44% greater than the proof condition.

115
Retraction of undercarriage

For military aircraft it is possible to operate the

retraction and lowering mechanism at speeds
in the range 1.2 -1.5 times the stalling speed
at appropriate aircraft weight.
The retraction and lowering times required
vary between 5-25 seconds according to the
type of the aircraft.
The civil aircraft are similar except that the
speed range is from 1.0-1.6 the stalling speed.
116
Brakes
The energy absorption per brake can be estimated as
:-
energy absorption per brake = (k-/Nb)(WV2/2g)
where
Nb is the number of brakes on the main wheel
W is the design weight
V is the speed from which a stop must be made
K- is a factor to allow for aerodynamic drag
contribution

117
K usually taken as 0.7 for a tail wheel and
1.0 for a nose wheel aircraft.
It may be possible to use the drag effect
of a nose wheel aircraft by maintaining
a high incidence until late in the landing
run, by delaying the dropping of the
nose.
In this case K may be as low as 0.8.

118
Landing dynamics

119
In some cases it is necessary to carry out a full
dynamic analysis of the landing behaviour in
order to deduce the correct loading system.
The general configuration of an aircraft of
weight W during landing is shown in the
previous fig. where
L is the resultant trimmed lift acting at the
c.g
LT is the damping force on the tail due to
landing motion

120
D is the aerodynamic drag
Tr Is the thrust
Dn, Dm are the drags due to contact of the wheels
with the ground
μ is the coefficient of friction
lm, ln, lt are respective distances of the main
undercarriage, nose u/c and tailplane from c.g
KB is radius of gyration in pitch about c.g
Km, Kn are the stiffness of the main and nose shock
strut units
Bm , B n are the damping coefficients of the main and
nose units and are proportional to velocity
121
 Energy absorption
The nose, tail loads are here specified in terms of a
parameter δ which represents the proportion of the
load that they are considered to react.
δn = (lm+0.4h)/(lm+ln)
δt = lm/(lm+lt)
h is the vertical distance of the centre of gravity above
a line joining the nose and main wheel
In order to ensure there is no change in pitch during a
three point landing , the travels of the nose and main
legs must be equal and relative energies absorbed as
follows :-
122
 Main wheels = (WLv2/2Ng)[(ln-0.4h)/(lm+ln)]
Nose wheel = (WLv2/2g)[(lm+0.4h)/(lm+ln)]
The design vertical velocities, proof, are specified
as follows ;-
Naval aircraft v = 14-20 ft/sec
civil aircraft v = (5+0.06vso) ft/sec
where vso is the stall speed at WL, flaps down,
but
7 ≤ v ≤ 10 ft/sec
123
 Loading Cases
landing with drag and side load
The process of spinning up the wheels during landing,
and the resulting drag, is assumed to continue until
the maximum reaction is developed.
The case is appropriate to a two point landing for the
main undercarriage and a three point landing for the
nose or tail u/c.
The vertical load on the leg is the product of the
maximum reaction factor and the proportion of the
static load reacted by it.

124
The lift is assumed to equal the weight at the
moment of impact.
The nose and main wheel reaction factors are
chosen so that no overall pitching occurs in the
three point landing. Thus ….
N1 = 2M1 {(lm+0.4h)2/[(lm+ln)(ln-0.4h)]}1/2
Where N1 and M1 are the nose and main
wheel reactions.
Drag loads are assumed to act at the wheel
axle unless they are due to brake torque, they
are assumed to act at the ground line.
125
Dynamic braking
The vertical load on the nose wheel is
N3 = [ WT/(lm+ln)][lm+(2cHD/WT)]
where
c is the coefficient expressing the increase in
nose wheel reaction due to pitching, app.
3.0 for military and 2.0 civil aircraft.
D is the drag about 0.8 times the vertical
reaction for civil aircraft.

126
 Braked taxying
For this case the aircraft is assumed to be in a
non-airborne condition with the nose wheel
centralized.
a) main wheel loads
for nose wheel aircraft M4 = [FWT/2(lm+ln)][ln-2HDM/FWT]
for tail wheel aircraft M4 = (F/2)WT where
F = 2.33 for tyre below 30 inch diameter and 1.8 for that
above 60 inch diameter with linear variation between
them and = 1 for supersonic airliner
DM = 1.33D for a supersonic airliner
= D for civil aircraft
127
The associated drag load for subsonic aircraft
is D and for military aircraft 0.33D at the hub
plus 1.0D at the point of tyre contact.
b) Nose wheel load
The vertical nose wheel load with nose
wheel in any castored position is
N4 = [FNWT/(lm+ln)][lm+HDM/FNWT] where
FN = 1.0 for supersonic airliner, but not to
exceed 0.8M4
The drag load in range 0-0.4N4 and side load
not less than 025N4
128
c) Tail wheel load

With the wheel in all positions the vertical

load is
R3 = 1.75WT[lm/(lm+lt)]
The drag load 0-0.4R3 and the side load is
0.25R3 for civil aircraft.
For military aircraft fitted with hydraulic
dampers the side load must be not less than
0.9WT[lm/(lm+lt)] and not less than half the
value for other types
129
Turning and swinging
Main undercarriage load is given by
Nose wheel aircraft
M5 = (WT/2){[lm/(lm+ln)]-+R/t} where
M5 is vertical load
t is main wheel track
There is no drag load but a side load of 0.5M5
for tail wheel aircraft
M5 = (WT/2)[1-+1.2H/t]
And the side load is 0.6M5
130
Rolling back

Here the vertical main wheel reaction is

M6 = (WT/2)[ln/(lm+ln)] and
the drag load is 0.7M6
Nose wheel load
N5 = WT[lm/(lm+ln)] with
forward drag load 0.7N5

131
Take off

Main wheel vertical load is

M7 = FWT/2 where

F is as defined before

the side load is 0-0.2M7

the drag load is 0-0.4M7

132
 General Loads on Aircraft
Before the structural design of an aircraft can be
made,
the external loads acting on the aircraft in flight,
on landing and take off conditions must be known.
There is a wide range of wing configurations, such as
the straight tapered wing,
the swept wing and the
delta wing,
and many of these wings include leading and trailing
edge devices for promoting better lift or control
characteristics.
133
The presence of powerplant nacelle units,
external fuel tanks, etc…, are units that
affect the air flow around the wing and thus
affect the magnitude and distribution of the air
forces on the wing.
Also the fuselage itself influences the air flow
over the wing.
All the loads can be calculated aerodynamically.
134
The Design loads
As aircraft is designed to carry out a definite job,
there result many types of aircraft relative to size,
configuration and performance.
The magnitude of the air forces ( loads) on an aircraft
depend on the
velocity of the aircraft and the rate at which the
velocity changed in magnitude and direction.
The magnitude of the flight acceleration factor is
governed by the capacity of the human body to
withstand without injury as for fighters and for civil
aircraft determined by what is necessary to safely
transport passengers from one place to another.
135
To insure safety in the air transportation, along
with uniformity and efficiency of design
governments aeronautical agencies (civil and
military) have definite requirements for various
types of aircraft relative to the magnitude of
loads to be used in the structural design of
aircraft. These loads are :-
a) limit or Applied loads
limit loads are the maximum loads anticipated
on the aircraft during its lifetime of service.

136
The aircraft structure shall be capable of
supporting the limit loads without suffering
detrimental permanent deformations.
At all loads up to the limit loads the
deformation of the structure shall be such as
not to interfere with the safe operation of the
aircraft.
b) Ultimate or Design loads
Ultimate or design loads are equal to the
Limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety
(F.S). In general the over-all F.S is 1.5
137
The broad general category of external loads on
conventional aircraft can be classified as follows :-
a) Air loads due to aircraft maneouvre under the
control of the pilot and due to air gust which is
not under the pilot control.
b) Landing loads due to landing on land, on water,
arresting etc…
c) Power plant loads due to thrust and torque.
d) Take-off loads
e) Special loads due to hoisting, towing, fuselage
pressurization etc… 138
Weight and Inertia forces
Weight is that constant force proportional to the mass,
which tends to draw every body towards the centre of
the earth.
An aircraft in steady flight ( uniform velocity) is acted
upon by a system of forces in equilibrium,
the weight of the aircraft, the air forces on the whole
aircraft and engine forces.
This balance can be changed by the pilot by changing
the engine power or by operating the control surfaces
to change the direction or altitude.

139
Inertia forces

If the unbalanced forces acting on a rigid body

cause only a change in the magnitude of the
velocity of the body and not its direction,
the motion is called translation.
From basic physics the accelerating force F = Ma.
M is the mass of the body or W/g. F W motion
The unbalanced force F caused the body to
move to the right. The effect of this unbalanced
force produces a force on each mass particle of W
the body.
140
 effective Force
= Σma = Ma
m 1a m 2a m 3a

The effective force Σma = Ma.

If the effective forces are
reversed they are referred to as inertia forces.
The external forces and the inertia forces form a
force system in equilibrium.
For a motion of translation and constant
acceleration
V –V0 = at
S = V0t+(1/2)at2
V2 – V02 =2aS 141
When an aircraft pull up from a steady flight or
pull up from a dive it will follow a curved path
as shown in fig.

142
If at point A the velocity is increasing along it path,
the aircraft is being subjected to
two accelerations
“at” tangential to the curve at point A and equal in
magnitude to
at =ŕa and
an = ŕω2 an acceleration normal to the flight
path at A and directed toward the centre of
rotation O.

143
From Newton’s law the effective forces due to
these accelerations
Fn = Mŕω2 =Mv2/r
Ft =Mŕa where
ω is angular velocity at A a angular acceleration
ŕ is radius of curvature

144
The inertia forces are equal and opposite to the
effective forces as shown in fig.
These forces are considered to be part of the
total force system on the aircraft which is in
equilibrium.

145
If the velocity of the aircraft along the path is
constant, then
at = zero and thus the inertia force
Ft =zero, leaving only the normal inertia force
Fn.
If the angular acceleration is constant, the
following relationship hold
ω - ω0 = at
ϴ = ω0t + ½ at2
ω2 – ω02 = 2aϴ

146
Where
ω is angular velocity after time t
ω0 is initial angular velocity in rad/sec
ϴ is angle of rotation in time t

147
The moment To of the inertia forces about the
centre of rotation “o” is Mŕa(ŕ) = Mŕ2a.
The term Mŕ2 is the mass moment of inertia of
the aircraft about point “o”.
As the aircraft has considerable pitching moment
of inertia about its c.g axis thus by parallel axis
To =Ioa+Ic.ga
where Io = Mŕ2 and
Ic.g = moment of inertia of aircraft about Y
axis through c.g of the aircraft. 148
In flight an air gust may strike the horizontal tail
producing a tail force which has a moment
about the aircraft c.g.
In some landing conditions the ground or
water loads do not pass through the aircraft
c.g, thus
producing a moment about the aircraft c.g
which causes the aircraft to
rotate about the Y axis through the c.g.

149
 In such case and for the above mentioned case
the centre
of rotation is going to be c.g instead of o. thus
ŕ =0 and Fn, Ft are zero and
the only inertia force for the pure rotation is Ic.ga
and thus the moment
of this inertia about the c.g = Tc.g = Ic.ga

150
 Air loads on wing
The wing of an aircraft carries the
major portion of the air load.
In level steady flight the vertical
upward force of the air on the
wing equals the weight of the
aircraft. Figs. Illustrate the
air pressure intensity diagram
due to an air stream flowing round
an airfoil for both positive and
negative angle of attack.
151
Wings are attached to fuselage, they may
support power plants, wing tip tanks etc… The
wings are tapered in planform and thickness
and some possess leading and trailing slats
and flaps to produce high lift or control effect.
The airflow around the wing is affected by
such factors and thus wind tunnel tests are
usually necessary to obtain a true picture of
the air loads on a wing relative to their
chordwise and spanwise distribution.

152
Aerodynamic Centre
Since aircraft flies at many different angles of
attack, it means that the centre of pressure
changes for the many flight design
considerations. There is one point on the
airfoil that the moment due to the lift and
drag forces is constant for any angle of attack.
This is the aerodynamic centre (a.c) and its
approximate location is at 25% of chord. Thus
the resultant force can be replaced lift and
drag at that point plus a wing moment Ma.c
153
The fig illustrate in general
the main forces on the
aircraft in an accelerated
flight condition.
T engine thrust
L total wing lift plus
fuselage lift
D total drag
Ma moment of L and D
with reference to wing a.c

154
W weight of aircraft
IL inertia force normal to
the flight path
ID inertia force parallel to
the flight path
Im rotation inertia moment
E tail load normal to
flight path

155
156
Equations of equilibrium for
steady flight
ΣFx = 0, D + W sinѳ-T cos β=0
ΣFg = 0, L – Wcosѳ + T sinβ
-E = 0
ΣMy = 0, -Ma-La-Db
+ Tc.cos β +Ee = 0

157
Equations of equilibrium in accelerated Flight

ΣFx = 0, D+W sinѳ – T cosβ – ID = 0

ΣFg = 0, L – W cosѳ +T sinβ – IL – E = 0
ΣMy = 0, -Ma –La –Db +Tc cosβ + Ee +Im = 0

158
Load Factor
Load factor is defined as the
numerical multiplying factor by
which the forces on the aircraft
in steady flight are multiplied to
obtain a static system of forces
equivalent to the dynamic force
system acting during the
acceleration of the aircraft.
L is the total lift and W = L

159
Now assume the aircraft is
accelerated upward along the Z axis.
The fig shows the additional inertia
force Wag/g acting downwards, or
opposite to the direction of
acceleration. The total lift for the
un-accelerated condition must be
multiplied by the load factor ng to
produce static equilibrium in the
Z direction.
160
Thus, ngL – W – Wag/g = 0
Since L = W then
ng = 1 + ag/g
If the aircraft accelerate
along the X axis as well as
the Z axis thrust will be
greater than drag and the
inertia force will be
nxW = Wax/g
ΣFx = 0, T-D-nxW = 0
nx = (T-D)/W

161
The applied or limit load factors are the
maximum load factors that might occur
during the service of the particular aircraft.
These loads must be taken by the aircraft
structure without appreciable permanent
deformation.
The design load factors are equal to the limit
load factors multiplied by the factor of
safety, and these design loads must be
carried by the structure without rupture or
collapse, or complete failure.
162
Any aircraft flight altitude can be defined by
stating the existing values of load factors
(acceleration) and the airspeed ( more properly
the dynamic pressure. The accelerations are
produced by maneuvers and air gusts.
The acceleration due to gust is not under the
control of the pilot as it depends upon the
direction and velocity of the air gust. According
to the available data it has been found a gust of
30ft/s appeared sufficient

163
The speed of the aircraft affects the loads
on the aircraft. The higher the speed the
higher the aerodynamic wing moment.
The gust acceleration increase with
aircraft speed. Thus it is customary to
limit the particular aircraft to a definite
maximum flight speed.

164
Gust load Factors

When a gust strikes an aircraft in a direction normal

to the thrust line (X axis), a sudden change takes
place in the wing angle of attack with no sudden
change in aircraft speed.
The normal force coefficient (CZA) can be assumed to
vary linearly with the angle of attack.
CZ A
C KU

B V Δα
Δα

α 165
Let point B represents the normal
aircraft force coefficient CZA necessary
to maintain level flight with a velocity V
and point C the value of CZA after the CZA C
gust KU caused a sudden change Δα in ΔCZA
B
angle of attack without change in V. The
total increase in aircraft load in the Z Δα (a)
direction can be expressed by the ratio KU
CZA at B. From (b) for small angles
Δα = KU/V and from (a)ΔCZA = m Δα
Δα
where m is the slope of the aircraft
normal curve (CZA per radian ) V (b)

166
The load factor increment due to the gust KU
can then be expressed as
Δn = ΔCZA/CZA = (KU*m/V)(ρ*V2*S/2W)
= (KU*V*Sm/575W) -----(a)
Where U is the gust velocity
K is gust correction factor depending on
wing loading
V is indicated air speed
S is the wing area
w is gross weight of aircraft
167
If U is taken as 30 ft/sec, and m as the change
in CZA with respect to angle of attack in
absolute units per degree, Equation (a)
reduces to
Δn = 3KmV/(w/S)
Therefore the gust load factor n when the
aircraft is flying in horizontal attitude equals
n = 1± 3KmV/(W/S)
And when aircraft is in vertical attitude
n = ± 3KmV/(w/S)
168
 Velocity-Load Factor
Diagram
The main design flight conditions for an aircraft is
given by stating the limiting values of the
acceleration and speed in addition to the maximum
value of the applied gust velocity.
The design loading requirement can be stated as
follows: The proposed aircraft shall be designed for
applied positive and negative acceleration of +6.0g
and -3.5g at all speeds from that corresponding to
Clmax up to 1.4 times the maximum level flight
speed.
169
170
The lines AB and CD represent
the restricted positive and
Negative maneuvre load factors
which are limited to speeds
inside line BD which is taken as
1.4 times the maximum level
Flight speed in this illustration.
These restricted maneuvre
lines are terminated at points
A and C by their intersection
with the maximum Cl values of
the aircraft.

171
 At speeds between A and B
the aircraft must not exceed
the maneuver acceleration.
At speeds below A and C the
loads and maneuver
producing Clmax would give
an accelerating less than the
limited values given by lines
AB and CD.

172
 The positive and negative
gust acceleration due to a
30ft/sec gust normal to
flight path as shown, a
positive gust is not critical
within the restricted velocity
of the aircraft since the gust
lines intersect the line BD
below the line AB.

173
 For a negative gust the
gust load factor becomes
critical at velocities
between F and D with a
maximum acceleration as
given by point E. For
aircraft having relatively
low maneuver factor the
gust acceleration may be
critical for both positive
and negative accelerations.
174
on the diagram, points A
and B correspond in
general to high angle of
attack and low angle of
attack respectively and
points C and D the
inverted high and low
angle of attack
conditions respectively.

175
 For stress analysis purposes all speeds are expressed
as indicated airspeeds. The indicated airspeed is
defined as the speed which would be indicated by a
perfect air-speed indicator, that is, one that would
indicate true air speed at sea level under standard
atmospheric conditions. The relationship between
actual airspeed Va and indicated airspeed Vi is
Vi = Vax√(ρa/ρo)
Where Vi indicated airspeed
Va actual airspeed
ρo standard air density at sea level
ρa density of air in which Va is attained

176
 Special flight Design
Conditions
There are types of flights which may be critical for
certain potions of the wing or fuselage structure.
Aircraft are equipped with flaps to decrease the
landing speed and be lowered at speeds at least
twice the minimum landing speed. Since the flapped
aerofoil has different values for the magnitude and
location of the airfoil characteristics, the wing
structure must be checked for all possible flap
conditions within the specified requirement relative
to maximum speed at which the flap may be
operated.
177
The flap conditions will effect the wing portion
inboard of the flap and only critical for the rear beam
web and for the top and bottom walls of the torsion
box. This due to the movement of the centre of
pressure backwards due to the deflection of the
flaps. This will produce more shear load on the rear
wall as well as torsional moment on the conventional
cantilever box metal beam. Also operation of ailerons
produce a different air load on each side of the
aircraft wing which produces an angular rolling
acceleration of the aircraft.

178
Accelerated Motion of aircraft

It is general practice to place the aircraft under

accelerated conditions of motion into a
condition of static equilibrium by adding the
inertia forces to the applied force system
acting on it.

Below are some examples

179
The fig shows an aircraft landing on a Navy
aircraft carrier and being arrested by a
cable pull T on the aircraft arresting hock.
Aircraft weight 12000 lb and the aircraft
given a constant acceleration of 3.5g(112.7
ft/sec2). Find the hock pull T, the wheel
reaction R, and the distance “d” if the
landing velocity is 60 MPH. What is the
stopping distance.

180
Solution
On contact of the aircraft
with the arresting cable
the aircraft decelerate,
and the motion is
translation horizontally.
The inertia force is :-
Ma = (w/g)a
= (12000/g)x3.5g
= 42000 lb
181
By using the static
equation of equilibrium
T and R can be found.
ΣFx = -42000 + Tcos10o= 0
T = 42700 lb
ΣFg = - 12000 + R
-42700xsin 10o =0
R = 19420 lb
To find “d” Take moments
about c.g of the aircraft
182
ΣMc.g = 19420x24 –
42700d =0
d = 10.9 inches
Landing velocity V0
V0 = 60 MPH
V2- V02 = 2as
02 – 882 = 2(-112.7)s
s = 34.4 ft.
Hence the stopping
distance is 34.4 ft
183
As shown in fig an aircraft
equipped with float is catapulted
into the air from a navy cruiser. The
Pulling force P gives the aircraft a
constant horizontal acceleration of
3g (96.6 ft/sec2). The weight of the
aircraft is 9000 lbs and the pulling
track is 35 feet long. Find the force
P and reactions R1 and R2 of
Catapult car. The engine thrust is
900 lb. What is the velocity of
aircraft at end of the run.

184
 Solution
The forces will be determined
just after the beginning of the
catapult run where the car
velocity is small and thus the
lift and drag can be neglected.
The inertia force acting towards
the tail is
Ma = (9000/g)x3.0g = 27000 lb
ΣFx = - 900-P+27000 = 0
P = 26100 lb

185
 To find R2 take moments about
point A
ΣMA = 900x55+27000x78
– 900x83- 85R2 = 0
R2 = 29800 lb
ΣFg = 29800- 9000+R1 =0
R1 = - 20800 lb
To find velocity
V2- V02 = 2as
V2 – 0 = 2x96.6x35
V = 82 ft/sec = 56 MPH

186
Example 3

A transport aircraft touched down in landing

and a braking force of 35000 lb on wheels
was applied to bring it to rest. The landing
horizontal velocity is 85 MPH (125 ft/sec).
Neglecting air forces on the aircraft and
assuming engine power is zero find the
ground reactions R1 and R2. What is the
landing run distance with the constant
braking force.

187
The aircraft is being
Decelerated Horizontally and
inertia force through the c.g
acts toward the front of the
aircraft. Using equilibrium
equation solve fo deceleration
factor
ΣFx = 35000 – Max = 0
Max = 35000 lb Or
(W/g)ax = 35000 lb hence
ax =35000x32.2/100000
ax = 11.27 ft/sec2
188
 To find the landing run
V2- V02 = 2axs
0 – 1252 = 2x(- 11.27)s
s = 695 feet
To find R2 take moments about point A
ΣMA = 100000x21- 35000x9 + 38R2 = 0
R2 = 47000 lb
ΣFg + 47000 – 100000 + R1 = 0
R1 = 53000 lb

189
Example
Air craft in fig weighs 14000 lb
flying horizontally with velocity of
500 MPH (733 ft/sec) when the
pilot pulls it upward into a curved
path of radius of curvature of 2500
ft. The thrust and drag are equal.
Find
a) acceleration of aircraft in Z
direction
b) wing lift and tail forces
c) aircraft load factor

190
 Acceleration ag = V2/r
= 7332/2500 = 215 ft/sec2
Or 214.5/32.2 = 6.68g
The inertia force normal to
the flight path acting
downwards
Maz = (14000/g)6.68g
= 93520 lb
Putting this force on the
Aircraft Through the c.g
promotes static equilibrium.

191
 To find tail load T take moments about C.P
Σmaz = - (14000 + 93520)x8 + 210T = 0
T = 4100 lb (down)
To find wing lift (L) use
ΣFz = - 4100 – 14000 – 93520 + L = 0
L = 111600 lb
Aircraft Load Factor = Aircraft lift/W
= (111600 – 4100)/14000 = 7.7

192
Example
Assume the aircraft of the previous example is in the
same attitude and the pilot suddenly further
maneuvered it by pushing the control stick forward
to
give the aircraft a pitching acceleration of 4 rad/sec2.
Find
a) The inertia forces and the tail load T, assuming
the lift force on the wing does not change.
b) The forces on the jet engine which weighs 1500 lb
and its centre of gravity as shown in fig. Assume
moment of inertia Iy equals 300000 lb.sec2 in
193
The figure shows the free
body of the aircraft with lift
and inertia forces as found
before. The additional inertia
Force due to the angular
acceleration α = 4rad/sec2
Iy = 300000x4 = 1200000 in.lb
Which acts clockwise or
counter to the direction of the
angular acceleration.

194
 The aircraft is now in static
equilibrium. To find the tail load
T take moments about aircraft
c.g
ΣMc.g = 1200000 – 111600x8
-218T = 0
T = 1409 lb
To find Mag take
ΣFg = 111600 – 14000 + 140
– Mag = 0
Mag = 99009 lb

195
 hence
ag = (99009/14000)g = 7.1g ft/sec2
The engine c.g is 50 inches aft the aircraft c.g. The
force on the engine will be its own weight of 1500
lb and the inertia forces due to ag and α.
Inertia force due to ag is
Mag = (1500/g)7.1g = 10630 lb
Inertia force due to angular velocity α is
Mr α = [1500/(32.2x12)]x50x4 = 776 lb
Therefore the resultant force on the engine is
1500 + 10630 + 776 = 12906 lb

196
Example
A large transport aircraft of gross weight 100000 lb
with pitching mass moment of inertia Iy=40000000 lb.sec2.in is
making a level landing with nose wheel slightly off ground. The
reaction on the rear wheels is 319000 lb inclined at such an
angle to give a drag component of 100000 lb and a vertical
component of 300000 lb.

Find
a) The inertia forces on the aircraft
b) The resultant load on the pilot whose weight is 180 lb and
whose location is as shown in fig.

197
Solution
The inertia forces on
the aircraft are forces
Max and Mag and
couple Ic.gα.
To find Max Take
ΣFx = 100000 – Max = 0
Max = 100000 lb
Hence ax = 100000/M
= (100000/100000)g
ax = 1g

198
To find Mag take
ΣFg = 300000 – 100000
- Mag = 0
Mag = 200000 lb
hence ag = 200000/M
= (200000/100000)g
ag = 2g
To find the inertia couple
Ic.gα take moments about
aircraft c.g

199
ΣMc.g = - 100000x120
– 300000x84 + Ic.gα = 0
Ic.gα = 37200000 lb
Hence angular
acceleration α equals
α = 37200000/40000000
α = 0.93 rad/sec2

200
 The forces on the pilot
consist of the pilot weight
(180 lb) and the various
inertia forces as shown in fig.
Max = (180/g)g = 180 lb
Mag = (180/g)2g = 360 lb
The inertia force due to α
acts normal to the radius
arm between the aircraft
c.g and the pilot. This force
will be replaced by its g and
x components
201
 Fx = Mzα
= (180/32.2x12) x40x093
= 17 lb
Fg = Mxα
=(180/32.2x12)x372x0.93
= 161 lb
Total force in x direction on
pilot is 180-17 = 163 lb
Total force in g direction is
360 + 180 – 161 = 379 lb
hence resultant force is
√(3792 + 1632) = 410 lb
202