Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

National University of Sciences & Technology
Rawalpindi, Pakistan

ME-102
Thermodynamics

Lecture – 7: Entropy

Lec Jawad Haider Syed

(Fall, 2019)
 Lecture Outline
• Introduction
• The Clausius Inequality
• Entropy generation
• Entropy change
• Property diagrams
• The T-ds relations
• The isentropic relations
• The isentropic efficiencies
 Introduction
• In last section, we introduced second law of thermodynamics, and
applied it to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Here, we will apply it to processes
• The first law of thermodynamics deals with the property energy
and its conservation of it.
• The second law leads to the definition of a new property called
entropy.
• Entropy is a somewhat abstract property, and it is difficult to give a
physical description of it without considering the microscopic state
of the system.
• Entropy is best understood and appreciated by studying its uses in
commonly encountered engineering processes, and this is what we
intend to do.

Entropy
 Introduction
• For a reversible Carnot cycle, we used relationship
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
=
𝑄𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝐿
• which can be rearranged as
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻 −𝑄𝐿
− =0⇒ + =0
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿
𝑄 𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄
෍ =0⇒ර =0⇒ර =0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
• 𝛿𝑄
We can infer that what ever quantity represents, it’s a point function.
𝑇
• This new property is called entropy and is given by
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• Change in entropy between two state points can be calculated using
2
𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = න
1 𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣

Entropy
 Introduction
• For a cyclic reversible processes,
𝛿𝑄
ර =0
𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• But what about
𝛿𝑄 2 𝛿𝑄
‫ׯ‬ =? ? or ‫׬‬1 𝑇 =? ?
𝑇 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣
• The answer to the above questions was given by Clausius by what is called
today as Clausius inequality
𝛿𝑄
ර ≤0
𝑇
• which states that
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄
‫ׯ‬ <‫ׯ‬
𝑇 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• So ‫ׯ‬
𝛿𝑄
𝑇 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣
is no more a point function, as it depends now on the path
followed. Also, for a process
2 2
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = Δ𝑆 = න >න
1 𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑇 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣
Entropy
 Entropy: Clausius Inequality

• Clausius inequality states that the cyclic integral of 𝛿𝑄/𝑇 is always

less than or equal to zero.
𝛿𝑄
ර ≤0
𝑇
• Here 𝛿𝑄 is the differential amount of heat transfer.
• This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible.
• For its proof, do consult your text book.
• Equality exist for totally and internally reversible processes
whereas, inequality is for any irreversible process
• Entropy is defined as
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣

Entropy
 Entropy: Clausius Inequality
• Entropy is an extensive property of a system and sometimes is referred to
as total entropy.
• Entropy per unit mass, s, is an intensive property and has the unit kJ/kg.K.
• The entropy change of a system during a process:
2
𝛿𝑄
Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = න
1 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• Entropy is taken as 0 at a convenient reference point (0 K), and then the
change in entropy is calculated by integrating the above equation.
• To perform the integration in the above equation, the relation between Q
and T during a process must be known, which is not generally available.
• For the majority of cases, entropy is calculated by numerical integration
and tabulated in forms of tables.
• The change in entropy for an isothermal process:
2 2
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄 1 2 𝑄
Δ𝑆 = න =න = න 𝛿𝑄 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 =
1 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑇0 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑇0 1 𝑇0
• The entropy change of a system during an internally reversible isothermal
process can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of heat
transfer.
Entropy
 The increase of Entropy Principle
• Consider a cycle consisting of two processes:
process 1-2 which can be reversible or irreversible
and process 2-1 which is internally reversible.
• From the Clausius inequality:
𝛿𝑄
ර ≤0
𝑇
2 1
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄
න +න ≤0
1 𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• The second integral in the above equation is the entropy change 𝑆1 − 𝑆2
2
𝛿𝑄
න + 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 ≤ 0
1 𝑇
• Rearranging the above equation:
2
𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ≥ න
1 𝑇
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 ≥
𝑇

Entropy
 The increase of Entropy Principle
• The entropy change of a closed system during an irreversible process is
greater than the integral of 𝛿𝑄/𝑇 evaluated for that process.
• The quantity Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 represents the entropy change of the system.
• 2
For a reversible process, it becomes equal to ‫׬‬1 𝛿𝑄/𝑇, which represents the
entropy transfer with heat.
• The inequality sign in the preceding relations is a constant reminder that
the entropy change of a closed system during an irreversible process is
always greater than the entropy transfer.
• It means that some entropy is being generated during an irreversible
process.
2
𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ≥ න
1 𝑇
2
𝛿𝑄
Δ𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = න + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
1 𝑇
• The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive (irreversible process)
quantity or zero (reversible process).
• Its value depends upon the process so it is not a property.

Entropy
 The increase of Entropy Principle
• For an isolated (adiabatic) system, dQ = 0:
2
𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ≥ න
1 𝑇
Δ𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ≥ 0
• The increase of entropy principle: states that the entropy of an isolated
system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of a
reversible process, remains constant.
• Its value depends upon the process so it is not a property.
• In the absence of any heat transfer, entropy change is due to
irreversibilities only, and their effect is always to increase entropy.
• The entropy change of a system can be negative during a process, but
entropy generation cannot
> 0 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ቐ= 0 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
< 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠

Entropy
 Entropy – Molecular View
• Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular
randomness.
• As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules
become less predictable and the entropy increases.
• Entropy of solid is minimum and for gases it is maximum.
• In the solid phase, the molecules oscillate about their mean position, but
they cannot move relative to each other, and their position at any instant
can be predicted with good certainty.
• In the gas phase, the molecules move randomly, collide with each other,
and change direction, making it extremely difficult to predict accurately
the microscopic state of a system at any instant.
• The entropy of a system is related to the total number of possible
microscopic states of that system, called thermodynamic probability p, by
the Boltzmann relation, expressed as:
𝑆 = 𝑘 ln 𝑝
• where 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾 is the Boltzmann constant.
• The entropy of a system increases with the increase in molecular
randomness of a system.

Entropy
 Entropy – Molecular View
• The molecules of a substance in solid phase continually oscillate, creating
an uncertainty about their position.
• The molecular oscillation decreases with the decrease in temperature.
• The molecules supposedly become motionless at absolute zero, resulting in
ultimate molecular order.
• The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure
crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.
• The third law of thermodynamics provides an absolute
reference point for the determination of entropy.
• The entropy determined relative to this point is called
absolute entropy.
• Molecules in the gas phase possess a considerable
amount of kinetic energy.
• However, the gas molecules do not rotate a paddle
wheel inserted into the container and produce work, due
to disorganized energy possessed by them.
• No useful work can be produced from disorganized
energy.
Entropy
Entropy: Organized and Disorganized Energies
• Consider a rotating shaft having a weight attached
to it by a rope.
• Rotation of molecules of shaft is organized resulting
in organized energy which in turn produces useful
work in the form of lifting the weight.
• Being an organized form of energy, work is free of
disorder or randomness and thus free of entropy.
• There is no entropy transfer associated with energy
transfer as work.
• Therefore, in the absence of any friction, the process of raising a weight by
a rotating shaft does not produce any entropy.
• Therefore, energy is not degraded during this process, and no potential to
do work is lost.
• Any process that does not produce a net entropy is reversible.

Entropy
 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed
once the state of the system is fixed.
• The entropy values in the property tables are given relative to an arbitrary
reference state.
• In steam tables the entropy of
saturated liquid 𝑠𝑓 at 0.01oC is
assigned the value of zero.
• The value of entropy at a
specified state is determined just
like any other property.
• The entropy change of a specified
mass m (a closed system) during
a process:
Δ𝑆 = 𝑚Δ𝑠 = 𝑚(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )

Entropy
 Isentropic Process
• The entropy of a fixed mass can change by heat transfer and irreversibilities.
• The entropy of a fixed mass does not change during a process that is
internally reversible and adiabatic.
• A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an isentropic
process.
Δs = 0 or 𝑠2 = 𝑠1
• Many engineering systems or devices such
as pumps, turbines, nozzles, and diffusers
are essentially adiabatic in their operation,
and they perform best when the
irreversibilities, such as the friction
associated with the process, are minimized.
• Therefore, an isentropic process can serve
as an appropriate model for actual
processes

Entropy
 Property diagrams involving Entropy
• The two diagrams commonly used in the second-law analysis are the
temperature-entropy and the enthalpy-entropy diagrams.
• The entropy is defined as:
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
• Rearranging the above relation would give the differential heat transfer:
𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = TdS
• The total heat transfer during an internally
reversible process:
2
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = න 𝑇𝑑𝑠
1
• The area under the process curve on a T-S
diagram represents heat transfer during an
internally reversible process.

Entropy
 Property diagrams involving Entropy

• The isentropic process can be

represented by a vertical line on T-s
diagram.
• Integration is required for T -ds
relation to find heat transfer in a
reversible process.
• The relation between temperature
and entropy needs to be known to
perform analytic integration.
• For an isothermal process, the heat
transfer:

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = TO ΔS

Entropy
 Change in Entropy: Example Problems
Air is compressed by a 12kW compressor from P1 to P2. The air
temperature is maintained constant at 25OC during this process as a
result of heat transfer to the surrounding medium at 10OC. Determine
the rate of entropy change of the air.

An insulated piston-cylinder device contains 5L of saturated liquid

water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. An electric resistance heater
inside the cylinder is now turned on, and 2200kJ of energy is transferred
to the steam. Determine the entropy change of the water during this
process.

Refrigerant-134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated vapor at

160kPa at a rate of 2m3/min and is compressed to a pressure of 900kPa.
Determine the minimum power that must be supplied to the
compressor.

Entropy
 Change in Entropy: Example Problems
A piston-cylinder device contains 5kg of steam at 100C with a quality of
50 percent. This steam undergoes two processes as follows:
Process 1-2: Heat is transferred to the steam in a reversible manner
while the temperature is held constant until the steam exists as a
saturated vapor.
Process 2-3: The steam expands in an adiabatic, reversible process until
the pressure is 15kPa.
Determine the heat added to the steam in process 1-2, and work done by
the steam in process 2-3.

Homework Practice Problems: 7.29, 7.31, 7.32, 7.35, 7.39, 7.46, 7.49, 7.50
Entropy
 Reversible work in Steady flow devices
• For negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies:
2
𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑣 = − න 𝑣𝑑𝑃
1
• The above equations are relations for the reversible work output associated
with an internally reversible process in a steady-flow device.
• The steady flow devices will give a negative result when work is done on
the system.
• To avoid the negative sign,
it can be written for work
input to steady-flow
devices such as
compressors and pumps
2
𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑣,𝑖𝑛 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑃 + Δ𝑘𝑒 + Δpe
1

• The relation of specific volume with pressure needs to be known to

perform integration.
Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices
• Irreversibilities inherently
accompany all actual processes
and that their effect is always to
downgrade the performance of
devices.
• Isentropic efficiencies is a way
to quantify the degree of
degradation of energy in
steady-flow devices.

• The ideal process that can serve as a suitable model for adiabatic steady-
flow devices is the isentropic process.
• The more closely the actual process approximates the idealized isentropic
process, the better the device performs.
• Isentropic efficiency is a measure of the deviation of actual processes from
the corresponding idealized ones.

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines
• For a turbine under steady operation, the inlet state of the working fluid
and the exhaust pressure are fixed.
• Therefore, the ideal process for an adiabatic turbine is an isentropic
process between the inlet state and the exhaust pressure.
• The desired output of a turbine is the work produced.
• The isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the actual
work output of the turbine to the work output that would be achieved if
the process between the inlet state and the exit pressure were isentropic
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎
𝜂𝑇 = =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑠
• Usually the changes in kinetic and potential energies associated with a
fluid stream flowing through a turbine are small relative to the change in
enthalpy and can be neglected.
• The isentropic efficiency of turbine becomes
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑎
𝜂𝑇 ≅
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines
• ℎ2𝑎 and ℎ2𝑠 are the enthalpy
values at the exit state for
actual and isentropic
processes, respectively.
• Well-designed, large turbines
have isentropic efficiencies
above 90 percent.
• For small turbines, however,
it may drop even below 70
percent.

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiency of Compressors and Pumps
• The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the
work input required to raise the pressure of a gas to a specified value in
an isentropic manner to the actual work input.
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑠
𝜂𝐶 = =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎
• The actual work in the compressor case is always greater than the
isentropic work due to irreversibilities.
• When the changes in kinetic and potential energies of the gas being
compressed are negligible, the work input to an adiabatic compressor
becomes equal to the change in enthalpy.
ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
𝜂𝐶 ≅
ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1
• When the changes in potential and kinetic energies of a liquid are
negligible, the isentropic efficiency of a pump is defined similarly as
𝑤𝑠 𝑣 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝜂𝑝 = =
𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines
• The actual and isentropic work in terms of enthalpies for compressors
and pumps:

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
• The isentropic efficiency of a nozzle is defined as the ratio of the actual
kinetic energy of the fluid at the nozzle exit to the kinetic energy value at
the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state and exit pressure.
2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐸 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑉2𝑎
𝜂𝑁 = = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐾𝐸 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑉2𝑠
• Nozzles involve no work interactions, and the fluid experiences little or
no change in its potential energy as it flows through the device.
• Moreover, if the inlet velocity of the fluid is small relative to the exit
velocity, i.e. 𝑣𝑖 = 0
2
𝑉2𝑎
ℎ1 = ℎ2𝑎 +
2
• The isentropic efficiency of nozzle becomes
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑎
𝜂𝑁 ≅
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠

Entropy
 Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
• The actual and isentropic process for nozzles:

• Isentropic efficiencies of nozzles are typically above 90 percent.

Entropy
 Problems
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 7MPa, 600C, and 80m/s and leaves at
50kPa, 150C, and 140m/s. If the power output of the turbine is 6MW,
determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine ,
(b) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.

Argon gas enters an adiabatic turbine at 800oC and 1.5MPa at a rate of

80kg/min and exhausts at 200kPa. If the power output of the turbine is
370kW, determine the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.

Air enters an adiabatic compressor at 100kPa and 17oC at a rate of

2.4m3/s, and it exits at 257oC. The compressor has an isentropic efficiency
of 84 percent. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies,
determine

(a) the exit pressure of air,

(b) the power required to drive the compressor.
Entropy
 Problems
Hot combustion gases enter the nozzle of a turbojet engine at 260kPa,
747oC, and 80m/s, and they exit at a pressure of 85kPa. Assuming an
isentropic efficiency of 92 percent and treating the combustion gases as
air, determine

(a) the exit velocity,

(b) the exit temperature.

Homework Practice Problems: 7.90, 7.93, 7.95, 7.104, 7.107, 7.109, 7.112
Entropy