Electrical Power Transmission

1
 Transmission system
• Connecting link between generating
stations and load centers (where
Electricity is distributed among various
consumers, such as, Industrial units,
commercial, and residentials)
• Transmission usually at high voltage
levels
– HV:132kV,220kV
– EHV: 345kV, 500 kV, 750 kV
– UHV: 1000kV, 1500 kV 2
 Type of transmission systems
• High Voltage AC system
– Economical up to breakeven distance
(600-800km)
– Requires substations for changing
voltage magnitudes at both terminals
– Short line: up to 80km(50mi)
– Medium Line: upto 240km(150mi)
– Long lines: above 240 km (or 150 mi)
• High voltage DC system (HVDC)
– Economical above break even distance
– Requires power converters at both
ends of the line, which generate
unwanted harmonics on both ac and
dc sides
– Only two wires are required for
transmission

3
AC transmission sytem

4
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

With respect to voltage

With respect to Length level
• Short lines • HV Lines
less than 80-km ( 50 mi ) – 115, 138 and 230 kV
• Medium lines • EHV Lines
Between 80-km (50 mi) – 345, 500 and 765 kV
and 240-Km (150 mi ) • UHV Lines
– 1000 to 1500 kV
• Long lines
More than 240-km (> 150 mi)
.
 Short line representation
• For short lines the charging power of
transmission line is too small and the equivalent
circuit does not include shunt admittance.
• Per phase equivalent circuit shown below.
• Here
Vs = Sending end voltage
VR = Receiving end voltage
Is= sending end current
IR= receiving end current
Z = z.l where z is the impedance per unit length
and l is the length of the line
Then
Is=IR
Vs= VR+ IR (R+ jXL)
 Voltage regulation of line

Regulation is maximum for LAGGING

power factor and is least or even
negative for LEADING power factor
load.
 MEDIUM LINES ( 80 to 240 km )
• For 3-Φ balanced system, the lines are
represented by single phase equivalent
circuit.
• Lumped parameters are used to represent
the line.
• Two models are used: the Π-model & T-
model
Nominal Π-model
If
• z= series impedance
per unit length
• y=shunt admittance
per unit length
• l= length of the line
Then lumped
parameters
Z=z.l and
Y=y.l
 Equations for VS & IS
Vs = A VR + B IR
Is = C VR + D IR
Where , A,B,C,D constants are:

A =D= 1+ZY
2
B= Z
C= Y(1+ZY)
4
Voltage regulation of medium
Line
• % V.R= IVRNLI - IVRFLI x 100
IVRFLI

At no load ; IR=0 & VS= AVR,NL

so VRNL= I Vs I /A
Therefore ,

% V.R= I Vs I /A - IVRFLI x 100

IVRFLI
 Question 5.5
• Use per unit values on a base of 230kV, 100
MVA to find voltage , current, power and power
factor at the sending-end of a transmission line
delivering a load of 60 MW at 230 kV with 0.8
P.F lagging . The three phase line is arranged in
flat, horizontal spacing with 15ft between
adjacent ostrich conductors. Line length is 70mi.
Assume a wire temperature of 50˚C. Note that
base admittance must be the reciprocal of base
impedance.
13
 Question
• An 18 km, 60 Hz single circuit three phase
line is composed of Partridge conductors
equilaterally spaced with 1.6 m between
centers. The line delivers 2.5MW at 11Kv
to a balanced load. What must be the
sending end voltage when the power
factor is a) 80% lagging b) unity and c)
80% leading
CALCULATION OF SAG & TENSION IN THE CONDUCTOR

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
•• ELECTRICAL
MECHANICAL
– Choice of voltage, size of conductor & spacing
– Selection of line route
– Calculation of line constants for regulation & efficiency of line at
– Types
full load of towers & poles
– Corona
– Acquiringloss &ROW(
RFI calculations
right of way)
– Insulation coordination
– Ground and ground clearance
– Stability consideration
– Tower
– Choosingspacing; span
number & type length
of insulators
– Mechanical loading
 Span Length
Selection criteria
Requirements:
• Various
Construction
factorscost
such
should
as voltage,
be minimum
Maximum tension on the poles
• during
Number any part supports
of line of the year, public
should besafety and for
minimum regulations.
economically viable
T.L. therefore span of the line should be optimum. This will reduce
the number of line supports and other fixtures, thereby reducing the
over all cost of the line.
 Usual span Length

Voltage level Span length(m) Minimum GND Clearance

clearance(m) between
Phases(m)
400V 80 4.6 0.1
11kV 100 4.6 1.2
132kV 350-365 6.1 3.9
220kV 365-380 7.0 5.13
400kV 400 8.8 7.0
 Calculation of tension
• l = span length
• D= max. sag
• W= weight per unit length of
the conductor
• T= tension at some point A of
the conductor
• T0= Max. tension at point O,
reference point
• s= length of segment OA of
conductor
• Lc= conductor length
 Sag and Tension in conductor
• With ice loading & wind pressure
In still air, at level support
• D= wl2
8T0
• Sag at some point A on
conductor= D- y= (w/8T0)(l2 -4x2)
• Tension at some point A on
conductor= T=T0+(w2l2/2T0)
• Tension at support point Q=
TQ=T0+(w2l2/8T0)
• Conductor length
Lc= l[1+(8D2/3l2)]
Components of TXN Line

INSULATORS

22
 Basic requirements
• They must be mechanically very strong
• Dielectric strength must be very high
• They must provide very high insulation resistance to
leakage currents
• Must be free from internal impurities or flaws
• Should not be porous
• Must be impervious to the entrance of gases and liquids
into the material
• Should not be affected by changes in temperature
• Must have high ratio of puncture strength to flash over
voltage.
Materials
Porcelain-should be hard, smooth ,
glazed, free from porosity

Glass- very high dielectric strength

140kV/cm thickness, transparent,
cheaper, moisture and dust easy
deposition

Steatite- very high tensile strength,

Epoxy insulators- made of specially

formulated cycloaliphatic epoxy
resin material that provides
superior performance in outdoor
and indoor applications.

24
Types of insulators
Pin type

Suspension type

Shackle or spool insulators

25
Polymeric Insulators
Weather shed looks, feels and
acts like rubber. But the material is
in fact, greatly sophisticated
chemical compound. Weather shed
material carries the technical
description of “Ethylene Propylene
copolymer” contracted to “EPM”.
Weather sheds are injection
molded under heat and high
pressure and are assembled over
the fiberglass strength member.
At the interface of the rod and
weather shed, a special silicone
grease is applied to produce a
permanent seal.

26
 27

SERIES IMPEDANCE OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
CHAPTER # 3
W.D. STEVENSON
 28

LINE CONSTANTS

• Resistance
• Inductance
• Capacitance
• Conductance
 29

MATERIAL FOR OVER HEAD LINE CONDUCTORS

• COPPER
• ALUMINIUM
• STEEL
 30

COPPER
• Hard drawn (i.e., not annealed after being drawn)
copper used because it’s twice as strong as soft drawn
copper and stretches to much lesser extent
• Good conductivity which however depends on the
percentage of impurities present in it.
• Higher current density, less x-sectional area required.
• Low specific resistance.
 31

ALUMINIUM
• Conductivity lesser than • Because of larger diameter it is
copper. Commercial hard subjected to greater wind
drawn Al wire has pressure due to which swing is
approximately 60.6% greater and requires large
conductivity in comparison cross arms of supporting
to standard annealed copper towers.
wire.
• Cheaper
• Jointing of aluminum is
• lighter in weight.
difficult
• For same ohmic resistance,
its diameter is about 1.27
times than that of copper
and is therefore useful
against build up of corona at
High voltage levels.
 32

STEEL
• Greatest tensile strength.
• High resistance.
• Bare conductors not used; deteriorates owing to
rusting.
 33

ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS STEEL

REINFORCED (ACSR)

An Aluminum conductor having

a central core composed of
galvanized steel wires is used for
HV transmission.

This is done to increase the tensile

strength of aluminum.
.
The ACSR conductor has a large
diameter than any other type of
conductor of same resistance.
 34

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALUMINIUM

CONDUCTORS
• AAC all Al conductors
• AAAC all-aluminum alloy conductors
• ACSR Al. conductor steel reinforced
• ACAR Al conductor alloy reinforced
 35

SPECIFICATION EXAMPLE OF ACSR

CONDUCTOR
Central core : 7 steel strands
Aluminum : 24 strands

Specification:
24 Al / 7 St
24 / 7
 36

SPECIAL SIZE AND DESIGNS

• Large conductors
• Expended conductors: paper separating steel
strands from outer aluminum strands giving
larger diameter. Used in EHV lines
RESISTANCE OF
LINE

37
 Resistance
• MOST IMPORTANT CAUSE OF POWER LOSS
• EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR GIVEN
BY
• R = POWER LOSS IN CONDUCTOR
I I2 I
Where, ‘I’ is the rms current in the conductor.

38
 D.C RESISTANCE
Given by the formula l
Rdc   A
WHERE, “ρ = resistivity of conductor,
l= Length of conductor
A= cross section of conductor
In US, l is measured in feet, A in circuilar
mills(cmil) and “ρ in ohms-cmils/ft
In SI units, l is in meters, A in m2 and ρ in ohms-
m
39
 Area of a solid cylindrical
conductor
• A circular mil (cmil) is the area of a circle
having diameter of 1mil.

– 1 mil= 10-3 in
– Area in cmils= (dia in mil)2
– Mil2 = cmil x π/4
– Area in mm2= area in Cmils x 5.067 x 10-4

40
• Variation of resistance of
metallic conductors is
practically linear over the
normal range of operation

41
 42

A.C RESISTANCE
• The effective cross sectional area of the
conductor is reduced for alternating current due
to phenomenon known as skin effect.
• Skin effect depends on
 Conductor size
 Frequency of current
 Resistivity and
 Permeability

Skin effect is large for bigger conductor and

Higher frequency
 43

DISADVANTAGES OF SKIN EFFECT

• Effective resistance is more.
• More resistive power loss.
• Effective internal reactance is decreased.
 44

EFFECT OF SPIRALLING IN COMPOSITE

CONDUCTORS

• 1% increase of
resistance for three-
strands conductor

• 2% increase of
resistance for stranded
conductor
 45

TABULATED VALUES OF RESISTANCE OF

CONDUCTOR
• D.C
▫ At 20 or 25 c

• A.C
▫ At temperature up to 100 c
 46

Table of characteristics for ACSR

conductor

Acrobat Document
 Unit CONVERSION CHART
1 MIL = 10-3 INCH
AREA IN CMIL at =20°Dia
• RESISTIVITY in Mil
C “ρ” :
2

MIL
•
2
=  x Cmil
• HARD DRAWN COPPER 4
• = 1.77 X 10 -8
Ω-m
•AREA in mm
2
= 10.66 Ω-cmil/ft
• = Area in Cmil X 5.067 x 10-4
ALUMINUM
•• 1 mm2=1.9736kcmil
= 2.83 X 10-8 Ω-m -4
•• 1 CMIL= 17.00= Ω 5.067 X 10 mm2
. Cmil/ft
• 1 MIL = 0.7854 X10-6 in2
• 1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2
• 1 ft2 = 0.09209 m2

•
• 1m = 3.28 ft
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m
• 1 MILE = 5280 ft
• 1 MILE = 1.609 Km
• 1 MILE = 1609 m
47
 Example problem(3.1)
• Table of electrical characteristics of all-Aluminum
Marigold stranded conductor list a dc resistance of
0.01588 ohms per 1000 ft at 20 ⁰ C and an ac resistance
of 0.0956 ohms per mile at 50⁰ C. The conductor has 61
strands and its size is 1,113,000 cmil. Verify the dc
resistance by computing and find the ratio of ac to dc
resistance.

48
 49

INDUCTANCE OF A
TRANSMISSION LINE
CHAPTER # 3
W.D.STEVENSON
 50

Definition of Inductance
• The induced voltage • when a current in a circuit is
changing, its associated
related to rate of
magnetic field( described by
change of flux linking a flux linkages) must be
circuit is given by changing. If constant
d permeability of a medium is
e ........(1) considered then flux linkages
dt are directly proportional to
current. Therefore, we can
write

di
e  L ..........(ii )
dt
 51

• Equating the two voltage equations

di d
L 
dt dt
d
L  ........H
di
• If the flux linkages vary linearly with current, which means the
magnetic circuit has constant permeability, then

τ
L  ..........H
i
 52

Self and Mutual inductance

• Self Inductance can now be defined as the flux
linkages of a circuit per unit of current i.e.,
τ  Li.......wbt
• Here i is the instantaneous current, τ also represents
the instantaneous value of flux linkages. For
sinusoidal current, the flux linkages also vary
sinusoidaly and can be represented by phasor Ψ
• Therefore phasor expression for flux linkages is

  LI....wbt
 53

• The phasor voltage drop due to flux linkages is

given by
V  jLI .....volts
V  j ....volts
 54

Mutual Inductance
• Mutual Inductance between two circuits is defined as the
flux linkages of one circuit due to the current in second
circuit per ampere of the current.

M12  Ψ ...H
12

I 2
• The phasor voltage drop in circuit 1 caused by the flux
linkages of circuit 2 is therefore given by

V  jω M I .......volts
1 12 2
 55

Inductance of a conductor due to internal

Flux
• Some of the magnetic field exists inside the
conductors. The changing flux inside the
conductor therefore contribute to the induced
voltage of the circuit and therefore to the
inductance.
• We must remember that each line of internal
flux only links a fraction of the total current
inside the conductor..
 56

A cross sectional view of the

conductor

Amperes Law:
The magneto motive force (mmf) in
Amperes-turns around any closed
path is equal to the current in
amperes enclosed by the path.

mmf   H .ds  I
Where
H=magnetic field intensity, At/m
S=distance along path ,m
I=current , A, enclosed
57
 58

Inductance due to External Flux

• Firstly we will determine the
flux linkages between two
points external to an isolated
conductor.
 59

Inductance of a single phase Two-wire Line

 60

Flux Linkages of one conductor in a group

of conductors.
 61

Inductance of a composite-conductor Lines

62
 63

GMR and GMD

• If n= no. of filaments of X • It is the n2 th root of the n x n
conductor and m= no. of distances , including r’,
filaments of Y- conductor between n-filaments of a
• For each filament of X composite conductor. It is
conductor, there are m denoted by Ds and also termed
distances between n filaments the Geometric mean distance
and m filaments of Y GMR.
conductor.
• The mnth root of the ‘mn’
distances is called Geometric
mean distance , abbreviated as
Dm or GMD.
 64

Example 3.2 pp:55

• One circuit of a single phase
line is composed of three solid
0.25 cm radius wires. The
return circuit is composed of
two 0.5 cm radius wires. The
arrangement of conductors is
shown in the fig below. Find
the inductance due to the
current in each side of the line
and the inductance of the
complete line in henrys per
meter ( and in milli henries
per mile).
 65

Exercise Problem:
 66

Use of Table
 67

Table A1 for ACSR Conductor characteristics

 68

Example 3.3 pp57:

• Find the inductive reactance per mile of the
single phase line operating at 60Hz . The
conductor is Partridge and spacing is 20 ft
between centers. Calculate by both formula and
Tables
 69

Exercise Problem:
 70

Inductance of 3-phase Lines

• POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENT OF CONDUCTORS

▫ Equilateral spacing or delta spacing

▫ Unsymmetrical spacing e.g., horizontal / vertical /
isosceles triangular spacing
SYMMETRICAL SPACING
INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE LINE WITH

EQUILATERAL SPACING

71
 The inductance per phase of three
phase line is given by

La= Lb= Lc = 2X10-7 ln D/ Ds H/m

XL =2 ΠfL= 4 Πf x 2 x 10-7 ln D/Ds Ω/m
= 2.022 x 10-3 f ln D/Ds Ω/mi
= 2.022 x 10-3 f ln 1/Ds + 2.022 x 10-3lnD
= Xa + Xd
The value of Xa and Xa is readily available from Table A-1
and A-2 respectively for a ACSR conductor.

72
Inductance of unsymmetrical lines
 When the conductors of a three
phase line are not spaced
equilaterally, the problem of
finding the inductance becomes
more difficult. The flux linkages
and inductance of all phase are
not the same. A different
inductance in each phase
results an unbalanced circuit.

 Balance of the three phase can

be restored by exchanging the
positions of the conductors at
regular intervals along the line
so that each conductor
occupies the original position
of every other conductor over
an equal distance. Such an
exchange of conductor
positions is called
transposition.
73
Transposition Cycle

74
 Modern power lines are not transposed at
regular intervals although an interchange in the
position of the conductors may be done at
switching stations in order to balance the
inductance of the phases more closely.
 The average inductance per phase is given by:
La = Lb= Lc= 2x10 - 7 ln (Deq / Ds) H/m
Where
Deq = (D12 D23 D31 )1/3

75
Example 3.4
 A single circuit 3-phase line operated at 60-
Hz is arranged as shown. The conductors are
ACSR Drake. Find the inductive reactance
per mile per phase.

20’ 20’

38’

76
BUNDLED LINES

77
For extra voltage above 230 kV: problems with one
conductor per phase:
 Corona power loss
 interference with communication lines
 High voltage gradient at the conductor in EHV is
reduced by:
 having two or more conductors per phase in
close proximity compared with space between
phases.
 Such a line is said to be composed of bundle
conductors
 Reduced reactance is other advantage 78
BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
 At voltages above 230KV, corona on OHL
becomes prominent with associated
power loss and Radio frequency
interference(RFI) in communication lines.
 In such condition, transmission lines
using single conductor for each phase ,
are replaced by a number of conductors
per phase e.g., 2,3,4 and 6 conductors per
phase. such a method is called Bundling .
79
EXAMPLE OF BUNDLED
LINES
 2,3,4,6…….sub-
conductors
 Spacers( 75-90m
distance )to prevent
conductor contact.
 Inter-bundle
spacing; e.g., 45
cm( 18 in)

80
2-CONDUCTOR BUNDLE LINE

81
220 KV QUAD- BUNDLE LINE

82
Merits & demerits of bundling
Advantages
 E surface reduced , corona
effect decreases
 XL reduced, XC reduced,
Zs reduced
 SIL increases
 Stability and voltage drop
improvement
 Greater load capability
Disadvantages
 ‘C’ increase , charging
power increases
 Ground level E increases
 Greater ice/wind load,
vibration stresses
 Strong towers are
required
 Spacers, other
mechanical components
 Higher overall cost
83
CALCULATION OF
INDUCTANCE OF BUNDLED
LINES

84
DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS
 For a two-strand bundle:
Dsb = 4√ (DsX d) 2 = (Ds X d)
 For a three-strand bundle:
Dsb =9√( Ds Xd Xd )3
= 3√ (Ds Xd 2)
 For a four-strand bundle:

Dsb =16√ (DsXd XdXdX√2 )4

= 1.09 4√(DsXd3

85
Example Problem 3.5
 Each conductor of the bundled line shown in
Fig is ACSR 1,272,000 cmil Pheasent . Find
the inductive reactance in ohms per km ( and
per mile) per phase for d=45 cm. Also find the
per unit series reactance of the line if its
length is 160 km and base is 100 MVA, 345
kV.

86
 d

8m 8m

d= 45 cm

87
PARALLEL
DOUBLE CIRCUIT
TRANSMISSION
TRANSMISSION

88
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
Disadvantages
 Advantages

 LARGER
 LESS ROW
CROSS
REQUIREMENT
ARMS

 REDUCED
 REDUCED
CAPACITIVE
INDUCTIVEREACTANCE:
REACTANCEMORE
CHARGING POWER
 SUPPLY CONTINUITY

89
Chapter # 4 , w.D.Stevenson

SHUNT ADMITTANCE OF
TRANSMISSION LINE
90
Shunt capacitance &
conductance
 Capacitance causes charging power to flow in the
lines even if they are open at the
receiving(load)end. It also causes voltage rise at
the receiving end if a long transmission line is
lightly loaded or open.
 Conductance accounts for leakage over the
insulator surface. Power loss due to leakages
over insulators is usually negligibly small.

91
FARRANTI’S EFFECT

ES IC XL
IC
IC R
ER
ELECTRIC INTENSITY AT SOME
POINT “P”
 Electric intensity at point p is:
E = D/K
= (Φ/A)/k,
where k= permittivity of free
space=8.85 x10-12 F/m

And because q= Φ, (Gauss’s Law)

E = q/ (A.k)

The area of 1 m long equi-potential

surface passing thru P is 2Πx
 Electric intensity is given by

E = q/ (2Πx .k)
Unit : volts / m
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE b/w TWO
POINTS
 AMOUNT OF WORK DONE
IN MOVING A UNIT
POSITIVE CHARGE FROM
ONE POINT TO ANOTHER.
 Work done = +ve if
charge is moved against
the Electric Field
 Voltage drop between
Point 1 & 2
V12= q ln (D2/D1)
(2Π .k)
 Voltage drop between
Point 1 & 2
V12= q ln (D2/D1)
(2Π .k)
CAPACITANCE OF A 2 WIRE LINE
 Vab= qa ln (D/ra) + qb ln (rb/D)
(2Π .k) (2Π .k)

since qb=-qa and if ra=rb= r

Cab= qa/ Vab= (Π .k) F/m

ln (D/r)
And
Cn = Can =Cbn = 2Π .k
ln (D/r)
Capacitive reactance Xc
 Xc = 2.862 x 109 ln D Ω.m to neutral
f r

Xc = 1.779 x 106 ln D Ω.mi to neutral

f r
Inductive reactance for 1 foot
spacing & for spacing factor
Xc = 1.779 x 106 ln D Ω.mi to neutral
f r
Xa’ = 1.779 x 106 ln 1 Ω.mi to neutral
f r
Xd’ = 1.779 x 106 ln D Ω.mi to neutral
f
Where D is the separation distance in Feet
Hence,
Xc = Xa’ +Xd’
Example

 Find the capacitive susceptance per mile of a

single phase line operating at 60 Hz. The
conductor is Partridge, and spacing is 20 ft
between centers.
solution
 From ACSR Table A-1, the outside diameter of conductor Partridge
=0.642” and so
 r=0.642/(2x12) =0.0268 ft
 Since
 Xc = 1.779 x 106 ln D Ω.mi to neutral
f r
= 1.779x 106 ln 20
60 0.0268
= 1.961 MΩ-mi to neutral
Therefore,
Bc = 1/Xc= 5.10x10-6 Siemens-mi to neutral
Capacitive Reactance for 3-Φ Line

 Equilateral spacing
Cn= 2Π .k F/m to neutral
ln (D/r)

 Unsymmetrical spacing
Cn= 2Π .k F/m to neutral
ln (Deq/r)

where
Deq= (D12 D23 D31)1/3
Capacitance of Bundled lines
 Assumption: D>>d
 The mutual distances
for determining Vab
are;
a-b’= D12+(1/2)d+(1/2)d
=D12+d
a’-b=D12-(1/2)d+(1/2)d
=D12-d
Chapter#5, Stevenson

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
103
Towers

104
Rigid Tower Guyed V

105
Rigid Metal Tower
Used between TXN voltage
through 765 kV.

Te most common are Steel Lattice

type

Aluminum lattice ad concrete

and steel columns have found
appropriate applications

usually assembled on site ,using

mobile cranes to lift the
individual sub-assemblies

Where access is very difficult,

Helicopters have been used to
transport complete towers or major
sub-assemblies from assembly
yard to the tower site.

106
FIXED-BRIDGE GUYED
TOWERS
require only 60 to 75% of the
structural steel used I their rigid
equivalents and usually cost less.
Rigid towers are used(favored) I
areas where land use is severely
restricted or very rough ground
makes anchor installation and
ground structure assembly difficult.
If the terrain is flat ad open with
easy access for mobile cranes , the
guyed towers can be readily
assembled on site and raised in
position.

107
CROSS ROPE
SUSPESION TOWERS
At 765 kv and 1100 kv , Guyed-V
structures become impractical
because of the tower height. At
765 kv, a guyed-V tower will
require a reasonably level, clear
assembly area of about 130 ft by
160 ft. I addition to space
requirements, the heavy bridge
structures also impose demands
on construction equipment such
as cranes. The alternative
solution would be to replace the
conductor-supporting bridge
with a steel able system
suspended between two guyed
masts. Such a construction is
termed as cross rope
suspension (CRS) tower. The RS
towers offer impressive saving
in materials

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