Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1. Prevention costs
2. Appraisal costs
5. Opportunity costs
What is quality management all about?
Quality is
“uniformity and
dependability”
Focus on SPC
and statistical
tools
“14 Points” for
1900-1993
management
1986 PDCA method
The Quality Gurus – Joseph Juran
Quality is
“fitness for use”
Pareto Principle
Cost of Quality
General
management
approach as well 1904 - 2008
as statistics
1951
History: how did we get here…
Technical
Tools
Cultural
Customer (Process
Alignment
Analysis, SPC,
QFD)
Developing quality specifications
Dimensions of quality
Conformance quality
Six Sigma Quality
6
• A philosophy and set of methods companies use to
eliminate defects in their products and processes
• Seeks to reduce variation in the processes that lead to
product defects
• The name “six sigma” refers to the variation that
exists within plus or minus six standard deviations of
the process outputs
Six Sigma Quality
Six Sigma Roadmap (DMAIC)
Next Project Validate
Project $
Celebrate
Project $
Validate
Project $
Validate
Project $
Validate
Project $
Six Sigma Organization
Quality Improvement
Quality
Traditional
Time
Continuous improvement philosophy
Plan Do
Act Check
1. Process flowchart
Tools used for continuous improvement
2. Run Chart
Performance
Time
Tools used for continuous improvement
3. Control Charts
Performance Metric
Time
Tools used for continuous improvement
Machine Man
Environment
Method Material
Tools used for continuous improvement
5. Check sheet
Item A B C D E F G
------- √√ √ √ √
------- √√√ √√√ √ √√
------- √√ √ √√ √
Tools used for continuous improvement
6. Histogram
Frequency
Tools used for continuous improvement
7. Pareto Analysis
100%
60
50 75%
Percentage
Frequency
40
50%
30
20 25%
10
0%
A B C D E F
Summary of Tools
Custome Receiving
Operator
rA Party
Custome
rB
How can we reduce
waiting time?
Fishbone diagram analysis
Customer Operator
Reasons why customers have to wait
(12-day analysis with check sheet)
Daily Total
average number
A One operator (partner out of office) 14.3 172
Frequency Percentage
300 87.1%
250 71.2%
200
49%
150
100
0%
A B C D E F
Ideas for improvement
Before… …After
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
100%
71.2%
Improvement
200 200
49%
0% 0%
A B C D E F B C A D E F
In general, how can we monitor quality…?
By observing
variation in
output measures!
Example
We want beer bottles to be filled with 12 FL OZ ± 0.05 FL OZ
Question:
How do we define the output measures?
In order to measure variation we need…
i
( x X ) 2
i 1
N
Average & Variation example
Number of pepperoni’s per pizza: 25, 25, 26, 25, 23, 24, 25, 27
Average:
Standard Deviation:
Number of pepperoni’s per pizza: 25, 22, 28, 30, 27, 20, 25, 23
Average:
Standard Deviation:
a.k.a
Incremental Upper/Lower Design Limits
Cost of
(UDL, LDL)
Variability
Upper/Lower Spec Limits
(USL, LSL)
Upper/Lower Tolerance Limits
Zero (UTL, LTL)
Traditional View
High
Incremental
Cost of
Variability
Taguchi’s View
“Quality Loss Function”
Zero (QLF)
Lower Target Upper
Spec Spec Spec
A process is k capable if
UTL X X LTL
1 and 1
k k
Capability Index (Cpk)
Another way of writing this is to calculate the capability index:
X LTL UTL X
C pk min ,
k k
X = 10 and σ = 0.5
LTL = 9
UTL = 11
LTL X UTL
10 9 11 10
C pk min or 0.667
3 0.5 3 0.5
Example 2: Capability Index (Cpk)
LTL X UTL
Example 3: Capability Index (Cpk)
X = 10 and σ = 2
LTL = 9
UTL = 11
LTL X UTL
Example
Consider the capability of a process that puts
pressurized grease in an aerosol can. The design
specs call for an average of 60 pounds per square
inch (psi) of pressure in each can with an upper
tolerance limit of 65psi and a lower tolerance limit
of 55psi. A sample is taken from production and it
is found that the cans average 61psi with a standard
deviation of 2psi.
X LTL UTL X
C pk min( , )
3 3
61 55 65 61
C pk min( , ) min( 1,0.6667) 0.6667
6 6
Central Line
• X/R Chart
This is a plot of averages and ranges over time
(used for performance measures that are variables)
• p Chart
This is a plot of proportions over time (used for
performance measures that are yes/no attributes)
Statistical Process Control with p Charts
p(1 p)
sp
n
UCL p zs p
LCL p zs p
Statistical Process Control with p Charts
80 1
p 0.066
6 200 15
0.066(1 0.066)
sp 0.017
200
UCL = 0.117
p = 0.066
LCL = 0.015
Statistical Process Control with X/R Charts
1 n
X xi
n i 1
R is the range between the highest and the lowest for each sample
Statistical Process Control with X/R Charts
1 t
X Xj
t j 1
1 t
R Rj
t j 1
UCLX X A2 R
LCLX X A2 R
X 12.00
R 0.15
UCL = 12.10
X = 12.00
LCL = 11.90
The R Chart
UCL = 0.32
R = 0.15
LCL = 0.00
The X/R Chart
UCL
LCL
What can you
conclude?
UCL
LCL