IMAGING TECHNIQUES

Medical Imaging
 Medical imaging is the technique, process and
art of creating visual representations of the interior
of a body for clinical analysis and medical
intervention.
 Medical imaging seeks to reveal internal structures
hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to
diagnose and treat disease.
 Medical imaging also establishes a database of
normal anatomy and physiology to make it
possible to identify abnormalities.
X-RAYS
 Introduction
 X-ray are electromagnetic radiations
located at the low wavelength(1 nm-
1 Aº ) end of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Introduction
 Properties of X-rays

 X-rays travel in straight lines.

 X-rays cannot be deflected by electric
field or magnetic field.
 X-rays have a high penetrating power.
 Photographic film is blackened by X-rays.
 Fluorescent materials glow when X-rays
are directed at them.
 Photoelectric emission can be produced
by X-rays.
 Ionization of a gas results when an X-ray
beam is passed through it.
 Production of X-rays

 X-rays are produced when rapidly moving

electrons that have been accelerated
through a potential difference of order 1
kV to 1 MV strikes a metal target.
Evacuated
glass tube

Target

Filament
X-ray Tube
Production of X-rays (2)

 Electrons from a hot element are

accelerated onto a target anode.
 When the electrons are suddenly
decelerated on impact, some of the
kinetic energy is converted into EM
energy, as X-rays.
 Less than 1 % of the energy supplied is
converted into X-radiation during this
process. The rest is converted into the
internal energy of the target.
 X-ray Spectra (1)

 Using crystal as a wavelength selector, the

intensity of different wavelengths of X-rays can
be measured.
 Uses of X-rays

 In medicine
To diagnose illness and for
treatment.
 In industry
To locate cracks in
metals.
 X-ray crystallography
To explore the structure
of materials.
High voltage source and high voltage
transformer

 High voltage source is responsible for

providing high voltage to the H.V
transformer for a decided time.
 The H.V transformer produces 20 KV to 200
KV at the O/P.
 These voltages are used to determine the
contrast of the image.
 High voltages have higher contrast.
 High voltage rectifier
 This rectifier rectifies the high voltage
produced by the H.V.T and supplies them
to the anode of the X-ray tube.
 Thermal overload detector
 The heat of the X-ray tube (should not be
increase by a specified range). If the heat
is exceed from a specified value, and then
the thermal over load detector is used to
turn off system.
 Rotor control
 Most of the X-ray tube anodes are rotated by an
induction motor, in order to limit beam power at
any spot and helps to cool the anode.
 Pulse duration timer
 The duration of the time must be very small so
that
 The patient does not receive the excessive dose,
 The film does not become over exposed.
 The X-ray tube does not over heat. The pulse
duration timer determines this pulse duration.
 Aluminum Filter
 The X-ray beam used in the medical field which
contains a broad band of frequencies.The unwanted
frequencies in the x-ray based create side effects e.g
extra dose for patient causing tumor also reduce the
contrast in the image. These are called soft x-ray. To
eliminate these effects Aluminum filter is used.
 Collimator
 Another mean to reduce the dose of patient is to
confine the x-ray beam only on the region of interest
on the body of patient. An external collimator placed
between patient and filter does this.
 Diaphragm
 X-rays inside the patient create x-ray scattering,
which tends to burned the image to absorb the
scattered x-rays and eliminate the burning of an
image a lead grid is used which is called
diaphragm.
 Film and lead shield
 The x-rays passed from the desired region of the
patient body are made to strike on the film
where they produce an image of the body soft
and hard parts. A lead shield is use to collect the
x-rays after striking on film.
 The H.V. source produces high voltage supply,
which are rectified by rectifier and applied to
anode of the x-ray tube. Filament supply is also
provided. As a result x-rays tube producing an
x-ray beam which is passed through the body
and produces image of body and the film, which
is examined in laboratory.
 X-ray image intensifier
(XRII)
 An x-ray image intensifier (XRII)
is an imaging component which
converts x-rays into a visible image.
 Image intensifier refers to a specific
component of an x-ray imaging
system, which allows low intensity
x-rays to be converted to a visible
light output.
Diagram of an X-ray
intensifier
 X-ray intensifier
 The X-ray image passes through the input
window and interacts in the input screen,
converting the X-rays to a visible light image.
 The photocathode converts this light image to
an electron beam image.
 The electrodes focus and accelerate the
electrons that strike the output screen,
producing the amplified light image of a much
reduced size.
 Application of the X-Ray
 Detection of the fraction in bones.
 Infection of lungs, kidneys and other
injury.
 Presence of Tumour.
 X-rays are used for treatment for
Tumour.
Use of X-rays in industry
 For industrial radiography and
fluoroscopy.
 For measuring the thickness of
material.
 Inspection of metals.
 Inspection of fruits before packing.
Advantages of X-ray
Radiography
 Quick, non-invasive and painless.
 Can help diagnose various diseases
and injuries, including broken bones,
cancer and infections
Limitations of X-ray
radiography
 It is projection of information in a single detection.
 Exposure area is more.
 For producing X-rays,very high voltage supply 20
KV-200 KV is required.
 Only images of dense fibrous tissues like bones are
possible.
 It does not provide information about an internal
organ surrounded by bony structure.
 Since X-rays have very high energy they may
endanger the body part if exposure time is
exceeded.
Limitations of X-ray
radiography
 The superimposition of 3D
information onto single plane makes
diagnosis confusing & difficult.
 The details of bony structures can
be clearly seen but it is difficult to
know shape & composition of soft
tissue organ accurately i.e.it can’t be
used for brain studies.
 X-ray Computed
Tomography
 Tomography:- Tomos –Section or
cut
 In tomography X ray tube &
detector are moved in synchronism .
so plane of patient under
examination remains in focus.
 CT Scanner
 Computed Tomography is based on the x-ray
principle: as x-rays pass through the body, they
are absorbed or attenuated (weakened) at
differing levels creating a matrix or profile of x-
ray beams of different strength.
 This x-ray profile is registered on film, thus
creating an image.
 In the case of CT, the film is replaced by a
banana shaped detector which measures the x-
ray profile.
 CT Scanner
 A CT scanner looks like a big, square doughnut.
 The patient aperture (opening) is 60 cm to 70 cm
(24" to 28") in diameter.
 Inside the covers of the CT scanner is a rotating
frame which has an x-ray tube mounted on one
side and the banana shaped detector mounted on
the opposite side.
 A fan beam of x-ray is created as the rotating
frame spins the x-ray tube and detector around
the patient.
CT Scanner
CT Scanner
CT Scanner
 CT Scanner
 Each time the x-ray tube and detector make a
360° rotation, an image or "slice" has been
acquired.
 This "slice" is collimated (focused) to a thickness
between 1 mm and 10 mm using lead shutters
in front of the x-ray tube and x-ray detector.
 As the x-ray tube and detector make this 360°
rotation, the detector takes numerous snapshots
(called profiles) of the attenuated x-ray beam.
 CT Scanner
 Typically, in one 360° lap, about 1,000
profiles are sampled.
 Each profile is subdivided spatially (divided
into partitions) by the detectors and fed into
about 700 individual channels.
 Each profile is then backwards reconstructed
(or "back projected") by a dedicated
computer into a two-dimensional image of
the "slice" that was scanned.
CT Scanner
ULTRASOUND IMAGING
What is ultrasound?
 Ultrasound is waves above the range
of human hearing (Freq >20 kHz).
 Ultrasonic wave is mechanical wave
consist of higher & lower pressures
called compression & rare factor
zones respectively.
 Used in medicine engg geology &
other scientific areas.
Ultrasound principle:

In an Ultrasound,
 A sound wave is produced in short pulses at the
desired frequency and focused at the region of
interest in the body.
 These sound waves are partially reflected back
from the body, received by a transducer and
sent to the ultrasonic scanner, where they are
processed and transformed into a digital image.
 The formation of the image depends on the time
and the strength of the echo, and is displayed
on the computer screen for analysis.
 Ultrasound Procedure
 During a medical ultrasound, a probe is
passed over the region of interest to send
sound waves into the area.
 To minimize air bubbles between the probe
and the skin, a jelly is applied to the region
first.
 The patient is sometimes asked to change
positions to get a better view of the target
area.
 A pulse is propagated and its reflection is received,
by the transducer.
 Key assumption:
- Sound waves have a nearly constant velocity
of ~1500 m/s in H2O.
- Sound wave velocity in H2O is similar to that in
soft tissue.
 Thus, echo time maps to depth.
The Ultrasound Machine
 A basic ultrasound machine has the following
parts:
 Transducer probe - probe that sends and
receives the sound waves
 Central processing unit (CPU) - computer
that does all of the calculations and contains the
electrical power supplies for itself and the
transducer probe
The Ultrasound Machine
 Transducer pulse controls - changes
the amplitude, frequency and duration of
the pulses emitted from the transducer
probe
 Display - displays the image from the
ultrasound data processed by the CPU
 Keyboard/cursor - inputs data and
takes measurements from the display
The Ultrasound Machine

 Disk storage device (hard, floppy,

CD) - stores the acquired images
 Printer - prints the image from the
displayed data
 The Ultrasound Machine
 The transducer probe is the main part of the
ultrasound machine.
 The transducer probe makes the sound waves and
receives the echoes.
 It is, the mouth and ears of the ultrasound machine.
 The transducer probe generates and receives sound
waves using a principle called the piezoelectric
(pressure electricity) effect, which was discovered
by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880.
 In the probe, there are one or more quartz crystals
called piezoelectric crystals.
 The Ultrasound Machine
 When an electric current is applied to these crystals,
they change shape rapidly.
 The rapid shape changes, or vibrations, of the
crystals produce sound waves that travel outward.
 When sound or pressure waves hit the crystals, they
emit electrical currents.
 Therefore, the same crystals can be used to send and
receive sound waves.
 The probe also has a sound absorbing substance to
eliminate back reflections from the probe itself, and
an acoustic lens to help focus the emitted sound
waves.
The Ultrasound Machine
 Transducer probes come in many shapes
and sizes, as shown in the photo above.
 The shape of the probe determines its
field of view, and the frequency of
emitted sound waves determines how
deep the sound waves penetrate and the
resolution of the image.
The Ultrasound Machine
 Transducer probes may contain one or more
crystal elements; in multiple-element probes,
each crystal has its own circuit.
 Multiple-element probes have the advantage
that the ultrasounc beam can be "steered" by
changing the timing in which each element gets
pulsed; steering the beam is especially
important for cardiac ultrasound (see Basic
Principles of Ultrasound for details on
transducers).
The Ultrasound Machine
 In addition to probes that can be moved
across the surface of the body, some
probes are designed to be inserted
through various openings of the body
(vagina, rectum, esophagus) so that they
can get closer to the organ being
examined (uterus, prostate gland,
stomach); getting closer to the organ can
allow for more detailed views.
The Ultrasound Machine
 The CPU is the brain of the ultrasound
machine.
 The CPU is basically a computer that
contains the microprocessor, memory,
amplifiers and power supplies for the
microprocessor and transducer probe.
The Ultrasound Machine
 The CPU does all of the calculations
involved in processing the data.
 Once the raw data are processed, the
CPU forms the image on the monitor.
 The CPU can also store the processed
data and/or image on disk.
 The CPU sends electrical currents to the
transducer probe to emit sound waves,
and also receives the electrical pulses
from the probes that were created from
the returning echoes.
The Ultrasound Machine
 The transducer pulse controls allow the
operator, called the ultra sonographer,
to set and change the frequency and
duration of the ultrasound pulses, as well
as the scan mode of the machine.
 The commands from the operator are
translated into changing electric currents
that are applied to the piezoelectric
crystals in the transducer probe.
Scanning Techniques
1. A (Amplitude)Scan Display
2. B (Brightness)Scan Display
3. M(Motion) /TM(Time Motion)Scan
Display
 A (Amplitude)Scan Display
 Each transmitted pulse triggers the sweep of
oscilloscope.
 That pulse (often attenuated) & returning echoes
(amplified & demodulated) are displayed as vertical
deflections on the trace.
 The amount of vertical deflection is proportional to
strength of the echo(intensity).
 The distance along horizontal trace represents the
time of sound travel in human tissue(Depth of the
organ).
 It permits accurate measurement of tissue depth
between any 2 echo service.