Data Analysis in Research

Mixed Method ( Qualitative and Quantitative)

• Explanatory Research ( Quantitative to Qualitative)
• Exploratory Research ( Qualitative to Quantitative)
• Parallel Convergent ( Qualitative + Quantitative)
Data Analysis :
• Qualitative Research
-Themes and codes
• Quantitative Research
• Statistical Tools ( Descriptive and Inferential Statistics)
Themes and Codes
• ‘Themes’ are features of participants’ accounts characterising
particular perceptions and/or experiences that the researcher sees as
relevant to the research question.
• ‘Coding’ is the process of identifying themes in accounts and
attaching labels (codes) to index them.
Classification of Variables
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
Classification of Variables
• Nominal- Variables are variables that have two or more categories,
but which do not have an intrinsic order.
• Ordinal- are variables that have two or more categories just like
nominal variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked.
• Interval -measurement where the difference between two values is
meaningful.
• Ratio- has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a
clear definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of
that variable.
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the
data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and
the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the
basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.
• Example:
• Measures of Central Tendency ( Mean, Median, Mode)
• Measures of Spread ( SD, Variance)
Sampling Method ( Cochran’s Formula)
𝑍 2 𝑝𝑞
• 𝑛𝑜 =
𝑒2
• Where:
• No= Sample Size
• Z^2= Confidence level represented by the value from the
normal table
• (90%= 1.65, 95%= 1.96, 99%= 2.58)
• p=q=0.50
• q+p=1
• e= margin of error
Sampling Method ( Cochran’s Formula)
If the sample is small like around
1000, Use the modification of
Cochran’s Formula
𝑛𝑜
𝑛=
(𝑛𝑜 − 1)
1+
𝑁
Confidence Level
• A confidence level of 95% with 5 % margin of error , may indicate that
the results have 95% accuracy plus minus 5% from the value.

• Ex. If the 57% of males says that they like coffee, thus the researcher
is 95% confident in the result that 52% to 62% ( As the range) males
like coffee.
Skewed and Kurtosis?
• Skewness is a measure of symmetry, or more precisely, the lack of
symmetry. A distribution, or data set, is symmetric if it looks the same
to the left and right of the center point.
• Kurtosis is a measure of whether the data are heavy-tailed or light-
tailed relative to a normal distribution. That is, data sets with high
kurtosis tend to have heavy tails, or outliers. Data sets with low
kurtosis tend to have light tails, or lack of outliers. A uniform
distribution would be the extreme case.
 14

Skewness = 0
Understanding the Data
Kurtosis = 3

NORMAL
vs
Abnormal Distribution

Shapiro-Wilk when P>0.05

 15

Understanding the Data Skewness ≠ 0

Kurtosis ≠ 3
Normal
vs
ABNORMAL
Distribution Shapiro-Wilk when P<0.05
Remarks: Test for Normality
• If P-Value > 0.05 (Level of Significance) – NORMAL

• If P-Value < 0.05 (Level of Significance) – ABNORMAL

Shapiro-wilk Test
• The Shapiro- wilk test is the test whether the data set is Parametric
(Normal ) or Non- Parametric ( Abnormal)
• It is used to determine the correct use of statistical Tools with
minimum error
Test Statistic (Test For Difference)
Test Statistic (Test For Relationship)
Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association
between two variables and the direction of the relationship, The value of the
correlation coefficient varies between +1 to -1 indicate a perfect degree of
association between the two variables

Pearson r Correlation – Measures the degree of relationship between

linearly related variables (Normally Distributed or Parametric)
Kendall rank Correlation- Measures the degree of relationship between
linearly related variables ( Abnormal or Non Parametric)
Spearman Rank Correlation – Used for Non parametric with ordinal data
type
Software for Data Analysis
• Qualitative Research
• -NVIVO ( Automatically makes codes and themes and etc)
• Quantitative Research
• SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science)