Chemical

Bonding
The Lewis structure of an atom is a
representation that shows the
valence
electrons for that atom.
• Na with the electron structure 1s22s22p63s1
has 1 valence electron.

• Fluorine with the electron structure 1s22s22p5

has 7 valence electrons
The Lewis structure of an atom uses dots
to show the valence electrons of atoms.

Unpaired
electron
Paired
electrons
B2
2s 2p 1
Symbol of
the element

The number of dots equals the number of s

and p electrons in the atom’s outermost shell.
 Lewis Structures of the first 20 elements.

11.4
 Bonding Theories
• Central theme in chemistry: How and Why atoms
attach together
• This will help us understand how to:
1. Predict the shapes of molecules.
2. Predict properties of substances.
3. Design and build molecules with particular sets of
chemical and physical properties.

6
 Lewis Bonding Theory
• Atoms ONLY come together for a single
reason:
• to produce a more stable electron
configuration.
• Atoms bond together by either transferring or
sharing electrons.
• A lot of atoms like to have 8 electrons in their
outer shell.
– Octet rule.
– There are some exceptions to this rule—the key to
remember is to try to get an electron configuration
7
like a noble gas.
These rearrangements occur by losing, gaining,
or sharing electrons.

This stable structure often consists of two s and

six p electrons.

Metals form cations and nonmetals form

anions to attain a stable valence electron
structure.
• because metals lose valence electrons easily.
 Lewis Symbols of Ions
• Cations have Lewis symbols without
valence electrons.
– Lost in the cation formation.
– They now have a full “outer” shell that was
the previous second highest energy shell.
• Anions have Lewis symbols with 8
valence electrons.
– Electrons gained in the formation of the
anion. •• •• −
Li• Li+ :F: [:F:]
• ••
9
Positive Ion Formation (cont.)

• Transition metals commonly form 2+ or 3+

ions, but can form greater than 3+ ions.
• Other relatively stable electron arrangements
are referred to as pseudo-noble gas
configurations.
 Ionic Bonds
• Ionic bonds result from attractive forces between
oppositely charged particles

Na+ Cl -

• Metal - nonmetal bonds are ionic because:

– metals have low ionization energies and easily lose e-
to be stable
– non-metals have low electron affinities
– the formation of the lattice stabilizes the ions.

11
After sodium loses its 3s electron, it has attained the
same electronic structure as neon.
Negative Ion Formation

• An anion is a negatively
charged ion.
• The figure shown here
illustrates chlorine gaining
an electron to become a
chlorine ion.
After chlorine gains a 3p electron, it has attained the
same electronic structure as argon.
Formation of an Ionic Bond

• The electrostatic force that holds oppositely

charged particles together in an ionic
compound is called an ionic bond.
• Compounds that contain ionic bonds are
called ionic compounds.
• Binary ionic compounds contain only two
different elements—a metallic cation and a
nonmetallic anion.
Metal - nonmetal bonds are ionic because:

- metals have low ionization energies and

easily lose e- to be stable
- non-metals have low electron affinities
the formation of the lattice stabilizes the
ions.
Formation of an Ionic Bond (cont.)
The
A 3s electron
sodium of sodium
ion (Na+) transfersion
and a chloride the-) 3p
to (Cl areorbital
formed.of
chlorine.
The force holding Na+ and Cl- together is an ionic bond.

Lewis representation of sodium chloride formation.

Using Lewis Theory to Predict Chemical
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Predict the formula of the compound that forms between
calcium and chlorine.
∙ Cl ∙∙

∙∙ ∙∙
Draw the Lewis dot symbols
∙
Ca∙
of the elements.

∙ Cl ∙∙ ∙ ∙ Cl ∙∙

∙∙ ∙∙

∙∙ ∙∙
Transfer all the valance electrons
∙
Ca
from the metal to the nonmetal,  
adding more of each atom as you      
go, until all electrons are lost : Cl : Ca2+ : Cl :
     
from the metal atoms and all    
nonmetal atoms have 8 electrons. CaCl2
19
 Formation of MgCl2

Two
AThe
magnesium
3s
forces
electrons
holding
ionof(Mg
Mg 2+
2+) and two
magnesium two Cl- together
transfer
chloridetoions (Cl-ionic
the are
half-filled
) are
3p
formed.
bonds.
orbitals of two chlorine atoms.
Properties of Ionic Compounds

• Positive and negative ions exist in a ratio

determined by the number of electrons
transferred from the metal atom to the non-
metal atom.
• The repeating pattern of
particle packing in an
ionic compound is called
an ionic crystal.
Properties of Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• The strong attractions among the positive

and negative ions result in the formation of
the crystal lattice.
• A crystal lattice is the three-dimensional
geometric arrangement of particles, and is
responsible for the structure of many
minerals.
Properties of Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• Melting point, boiling point, and hardness

depend on the strength of the attraction.
Properties of Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• In a solid, ions are locked into position and

electrons cannot flow freely—solid ions are
poor conductors of electricity.
• Liquid ions or ions in aqueous solution have
electrons that are free to move, so they
conduct electricity easily.
• An ion in aqueous solution that conducts
electricity is an electrolyte.
Properties of Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• This figure demonstrates how and why

crystals break when an external force is
applied.
Energy and the Ionic Bond

• Reactions that absorb energy are

endothermic.
• Reactions that release energy are
exothermic.
Energy and the Ionic Bond (cont.)

• The energy required to separate 1 mol of

ions in an ionic compound is referred to as
the lattice energy.
• Lattice energy is directly related to the size of
the ions that are bonded.
Energy and the Ionic Bond (cont.)

• Smaller ions form compounds with more

closely spaced ionic charges, and require
more energy to separate.
• Electrostatic force of attraction is inversely
related to the distance between the opposite
charges.
• The smaller the ion, the greater the attraction.
Energy and the Ionic Bond (cont.)

• The value of lattice energy is also affected

by the charge of the ion.
 Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds

In written names and formulas for ionic compounds,

the cation appears first, followed by the anion.

formula unit
monatomic ion
oxidation number
polyatomic ion
oxyanion
Formulas for Ionic Compounds

• When writing names and formulas for ionic

compounds, the cation appears first
followed by the anion.
• Chemists around the world need to
communicate with one another, so a
standardized system of naming compounds
was developed.
Formulas for Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• A formula unit represents the simplest

ratio of the ions involved.
• Monatomic ions are one-atom ions.
Formulas for Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• Oxidation number, or oxidation state, is

the charge of a monatomic ion.
Formulas for Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• The symbol for the cation is always written

first, followed by the symbol of the anion.
• Subscripts represent the number of ions of
each element in an ionic compound.
• The total charge must equal zero in an ionic
compound.
Formulas for Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• Polyatomic ions are ions made

up of more than one atom.
• Never change subscripts of
polyatomic ions, place in
parentheses and write the
appropriate subscript outside the
parentheses.
Formulas for Ionic Compounds (cont.)
Names for Ions and Ionic Compounds

• An oxyanion is a polyatomic ion

composed of an element (usually a non-
metal), bonded to one or more oxygen
atoms.
Names for Ions and Ionic Compounds (cont.)
Names for Ions and Ionic Compounds (cont.)

• Chemical nomenclature is a systematic

way of naming compounds.
– Name the cation followed by the anion.
– For monatomic, cations use the element name.
– For monatomic anions, use the root element name
and the suffix –ide.
– To distinguish between different oxidation states of
the same element, the oxidation state is written in
parentheses after the name of the cation.
– When the compound contains a polyatomic ion,
name the cation followed by the name of the
polyatomic ion.
Names for Ions and Ionic Compounds (cont.)
Metallic Bonds
Metals form crystal lattices and can be
modeled as cations surrounded by a “sea”
of freely moving valence electrons.

electron sea model

delocalized electron
metallic bond
alloy
Metallic Bonds and the Properties of Metals

• Metals are not ionic but share several

properties with ionic compounds.
• Metals also form lattices in the solid state,
where 8 to 12 other atoms closely surround
each metal atom.
• Within the crowded lattice, the outer energy
levels of metal atoms overlap.
• The electron sea model proposes that all
metal atoms in a metallic solid contribute their
valence electrons to form a "sea" of electrons.
• The electrons are free to move around and
are referred to as delocalized electrons,
forming a metallic cation.
• A metallic bond is the attraction of an
metallic cation for delocalized electrons.
Metallic Bonds and the Properties of Metals
(cont.)
• Boiling points are
much more extreme
than melting points
because of the
energy required to
separate atoms from
the groups of cations
and electrons.
Metallic Bonds and the Properties of Metals
(cont.)
• Metals are malleable because they can be
hammered into sheets.
• Metals are ductile because they can be
drawn into wires.
Metal Alloys

• An alloy is a mixture of elements that has

metallic properties.
• The properties of alloys differ from the
elements they contain.
Metal Alloys (cont.)
Metal Alloys (cont.)

• Substitutional alloys are formed when

some atoms in the original metallic solid
are replaced by other metals of similar
atomic structure.
• Interstitial alloys are formed when small
holes in a metallic crystal are filled with
smaller atoms.