H.

SAIBI
December 9th , 2015
A pilot, a hot air balloonist, and a scuba diver must all
have a good working understanding of air and water
temperatures as they flights and dives.
 What is temperature?
 What is it a measurement of?
 Our sense of touch can usually tell us if an object is hot or cold.
 If an object is heated or cooled, some of its physical properties change.
 If a solid or liquid is heated, its volume increases.
 If a gas is heated and its pressure is kept constant, its pressure
increases.
 If an electrical conductor is heated, its electrical resistance changes.
 A physical property that changes with temperature is called a
thermometric property.
 Contact between a warm copper bar and a cold iron bar, so the copper
bar cools and the iron bar warms, we say that the two bars are in
Thermal contact. The copper bar contracts slightly as it cools, and the
iron bar expands slightly as it warms.
 This process eventually stops and the lengths remain constant. The two
bars are then in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Iftwo objects are in thermal equilibrium
with a third object, then all three of the
objects are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
 Two objects are defined to have the same
temperature if they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. The Zeroth law
enables us to define a temperature scale.
Fig. The Zeroth law of thermodynamics. (a) Systems A and B are in thermal contact
with system C, but not with each other. When A and B are each in thermal
equilibrium with C, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other, which can be
checked by placing them in contact with each other as in Part (b).

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

 Thermometers are devices used to measure the
temperature of a system. All thermometers are
based on the principle that some physical
property of a system changes at the system’s
temperature changes. Some physical properties
that change with temperature are:
 The volume of a liquid
 The dimensions of a solid
 The pressure of a gas at constant volume
 The volume of a gas at constant pressure
 The electric resistance of a conductor
 The color of an object.
 Type of thermometers: mercury or alcohol. Mercury is highly
toxic. Today alcohol is commonly used in thermometers.
 The mercury thermometer consists of a glass bulb and tube
containing a fixed amount of mercury. When this thermometer is
put in contact with a warmer object, the mercury expands,
increasing the length of the mercury column.
 We can create a scale along the glass tube by using the following
procedure:
 First the thermometer is placed in ice and water in equilibrium at a
pressure of 1 atm. When the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with
the ice water gives the ice-point temperature (normal freezing point of
water).
 Next, the thermometer is placed in boiling water at a pressure of 1 atm.
When the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with the boiling water
gives the steam-point temperature (normal boiling point of water).
  This scales defines the ice-point temperature
as zero degrees centigrade and the steam-
point temperature as 100 degrees
centigrade.
The centigrade
temperature:
Length of mercury column when the thermometer is
in a steam bath.

Length of mercury column when

the thermometer is in an ice bath

Length of mercury column

Normal temperature of the human body is about 37oC.

 German physicist: Daniel Fahrenheit.
 Widely used in the United States defines the ice-point
temperature as 32oF and the steam-point temperature as 212oF.
 There are 100 centigrade degrees and 180 Fahrenheit degrees
between the ice and steam points.
 A temperature change of one centigrade degree therefore equals
a change of 9/5 (1.8) Fahrenheit degrees.

Fahrenheit-Centigrade
Conversion:
 Other thermometric properties can be used to set up
thermometers and construct temperature scales.

Fig. A bimetallic strip. When

heated or cooled, the two
metals expand or contract by
different amounts, causing the
strip to bend.

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

Fig. (a) A thermometer using a bimetallic strip in the form of coil (the red pointer is
attached to one end of the coil). When the temperature of the coil increases, the
needle rotates clockwise because the outer metal expands more than the inner
metal.
(b) A home thermostat controls the central air conditioner. When the air gets
warmer, the coil expands, the glass bulb mounted on it tills, and mercury in the tube
slides to close an electrical switch, turning on the air conditioning. A slide lever (at
the lower right), used to rotate the coil mount, is used to set the desired
temperature. The circuit will be broken when the cooler air causes the bimetallic
coil to contract.

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

 The different types of centigrade thermometers
(calibrated in ice water and steam) give slightly different
readings at points between 0oC and 100oC.
 Discrepancies increase above the steam point and below
the ice point.
 However, in one group of thermometers, gas
thermometers, measured temperatures agree closely with
each other, even far from the calibration points.
 In a constant-volume gas thermometer, the gas volume is
kept constant, and change in gas pressure is used to
indicate a change in temperature.
 Fig. A constant-volume gas
thermometer. The volume is
kept constant by raising or
lowering tube B3 so that the
mercury in tube B2 remains
at the zero mark. The
temperature is chosen to be
proportional to the pressure
of the gas in tube B1, which
is indicated by height h of
the mercury column in tube
B3.

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

 An ice-point pressure Po and steam-point pressure P100 are
determined by placing the thermometer in ice-water and
water-steam baths, and the interval between them is
divided into 100 equal degrees (for the centigrade scale).

 If the pressure is Pt in a bath whose temperature is to be

determined, that temperature in degrees centigrade is
defined to be:

Constant-Volume Centigrade
Gas Thermometer
Fig. Temperature of the boiling point of sulfur measured with constant-volume
gas thermometers filled with various gases. Increasing or decreasing the
amount of gas in the thermometer varies the pressure P100 at the steam point
of water. As the amount of gas is reduced, the temperature of the boiling
point of sulfur measured by all the thermometers approaches the value
444.60oC. Note that the temperature axis shows a range of temperatures from
444oC to 446oC.

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

 Fig. Plot of pressure versus temperature for a gas, as
measured by a constant-volume gas thermometer. When
extrapolated to zero pressure, the plot intersects the
temperature axis at the value -273.15oC.

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company

 A reference state that is much
more precisely reproducible
than either ice or steam points
is the triple point of water –
the unique temperature and
pressure at which water, water
vapor, and ice coexist in
equilibrium. This equilibrium
occurs at 4.58 mmHg and
0.01oC. The ideal-gas
temperature scale is defined
so that the temperature of the
triple-point state is 273.16 K
(Kelvins).

Fig. Water at its triple point. The spherical flask contains

liquid water, ice, and water vapor in thermal equilibrium.
©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company
 The temperature T of any state is defined to be proportional to the
pressure in a constant-volume gas thermometer:

Constant-Volume ideal-
gas-temperature
thermometer

 Where P is the observed pressure of the gas in the thermometer, P3 is the

pressure when the thermometer is immersed in a water-ice-vapor bath at
its triple point, and T3=273.16K (the triple-point temperature). The value
P3 depends on the amount of gas in the thermometer. T is absolute temp.
 Zero on the Celsius scale corresponds to an ideal-gas temperature of
exactly 273.15 K.
 The lowest temperature that can be measured with a constant-volume
gas thermometer is about 20 K, and requires helium for the gas. Below
this temperature helium liquefies; all other gases liquefy at higher
temperatures (see next Table).
 To convert from degrees Celsius to
Kelvins, we merely add 273.15:

Celsius-Absolute Conversion

©2008 by W.H. Freeman and Company