Lecture 1

Introduction
 Overview
 Concepts of data communications and
networking
 Data communications components, data
representation, and data flow
 Network topologies
 Categories of networks, and the general idea
behind the Internet.
 Protocols and standards
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

• The term telecommunication means communication at

a distance. Tele i.e; far
• The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
• Data communication is the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable or wireless media etc.
• For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
 Data Communication System

Effectiveness depends on three

characteristics:
 Delivery (deliver data to the correct destination)
 Accuracy (deliver the data accurately)
 Timeliness (deliver data in a timely manner;
without significant delay; data delivered as soon as
produced real-time delivery)
 Jitter (variation in the packet arrival time; uneven
delay in packet delivery ; results in uneven quality)
 Components of data communication
systems
1. Message: information (data) to be communicated; text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video
2. Sender: Device that sends message; computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera
3. Receiver: device that receives the message; computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: Physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver; twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves etc.
5. Protocol: Set of rules that govern data communications;
represents an agreement between the communicating
devices
Five components of data communication
 Data Representation
 Text: Represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os/1s). Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each
set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called
coding. prevalent coding system is called Unicode; uses 32 bits to
represent a symbol or character.
 Numbers: represented by bit patterns; number is directly converted to a
binary number
 Images: represented by bit patterns; composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution.
 Data Representation

 Audio: recording or broadcasting of sound or music. continuous, not

discrete.
 Video: recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie; either produced
as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 Data Flow
 Simplex: Unidirectional; Keyboards and traditional
monitors
 Half Duplex: each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time; Walkie-talkies
and CB (citizens band) radios etc.
 Full Duplex: both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously; telephone network etc
 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Models
Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
 Network Criteria

 A network must be able meet a certain number of

criteria. The most important of these are:
 Performance (Transit time, response time, throughput,
delay, number of users, transmission medium, capabilities of
hardware, efficiency of software etc); Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response.
 Reliability (frequency of failure, time taken to recover.
Network robustness)
 Security (unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage, implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.)
 Physical Structure

 Network attributes
 Type of connection
 Physical topology
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
 Type of connection
 Point to Point Connection  Multipoint Connection
dedicated link more than two specific
Entire capacity of the devices share a single link
link is reserved for capacity of the channel is
transmission shared, either spatially or
When you change temporally.
television channels by  If several devices can use
infrared remote control, the link simultaneously, it is
you are establishing a a spatially shared
p2p connection between connection.
the remote control and If users must take turns, it
TV's control system is a timeshared connection.
 Topology
 way in which a network is laid out physically
 two or more devices connect to a link; two or more
links form a topology
 geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another
Categories of topology
 Mesh Topology

 every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

every other device.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects.
 Links required: n (n-1)/2
 Used in telephone regional offices
A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 Mesh Topology

 Advantages
 Each connection carry its own data
 Eliminate traffic problem
 Robust, if one link unusable, it doesn’t incapacitate
entire system
 Security and privacy
 Fault identification and isolation easy
 Disadvantages
 Amount of cabling
 Installation difficult
 Hardware requirements
 Star Topology

 each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to

a central controller, usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not
allow direct traffic between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange
 Links required: n
 Star Topology

 No direct traffic
 Easy to install
 Failure of a link effects that user
 Failure of hub effects entire system
 Used in LANs
A star topology connecting four stations
 Bus Topology

 The preceding examples all describe point-to-point

connections.
 A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network
 Have drop line and tap
 Links required: n drop lines and 1 backbone
 Support limited users
A bus topology connecting three stations
 Ring Topology

 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point

connection with only the two devices on either side
of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
 When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along
 Simple ring , dual ring
A ring topology connecting six stations
 Hybrid topology
 an integration of two or more different topologies to
form a resultant topology

1.29
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 Network Models

 Two network models:

 OSI reference model (7 layer model)
 TCP/IP model (internet model; 5 layer model)
 Categories of Networks

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Local Area Network
 Privately Owned
 Provide links with in a boundary
 Topology depends upon the need; common are bus
and star
 Share resources
 Wired/Wireless
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub
 Wide Area Network
 Long-distance data transmission over large
geographic areas, spanning town, state, country or
even the world
 LAN interconnects hosts, WAN interconnects
connecting devices like routers, switches or modems
 Point-to-point: connects 2 communicating devices
through a transmission medium. Dial up line;
connects home computer to internet WAN
 Switched WAN: complex; provide internet
connectivity; connects end systems via routers
 Combination of several point to point WANs
1.35
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 Metropolitan Area Network
 Network with a size between a LAN and a WAN
 Covers the area inside a town/city
 Designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city
 E.g; cable TV network that originally was designed for
cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed
data connection to the Internet
 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols

(rule) and standards (agreed upon rules). First, we define
protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Then we discuss
standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
 Protocols

 Set of rules and regulations that governs data

communications; what, how & when to
communication
 Key elements of protocol:
 Syntax (structure and format of data, meaning order in
which they are presented)
 Semantics (meaning of each section of bits, How a
particular pattern is interpreted, and what action is to
be taken based on interpretation)
 Timing (when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent)
 Standard

 Guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government

agencies to ensure interconnectivity.
 Two types:
 De facto (by fact/ by convention )
 De jure (by law/ by regulation)
 Standard Types
 De facto. Standards that have not been approved by
an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de facto
standards. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
 De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by
an officially recognized body are de jure standards.