CH # 6: THE SECOND LAW

OF THERMODYNAMICS
Lecture # 3
Why we need 2nd law of Thermodynamics?
Aspects of the Second Law
 Predicting the direction of processes

 Establishing conditions for equilibrium

 Determining the best theoretical performance of cycles,

engines, and other devices

 Evaluating quantitatively the factors that preclude the

attainment of the best theoretical performance level

6–2 ■ THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS
• Hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal
energy capacity (mass specific heat) that can
supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature.

• Any physical body whose thermal energy capacity

is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies
or absorbs can be modeled as one.

• TYPES
1. Source e.g. industrial furnace
2. Sink e.g. lake, atmosphere
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
• Definition: It is impossible for any device that
operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

• Alternate Definition No heat engine can have a

thermal efficiency of 100 percent (Fig. 6–18), or as
for a power plant to operate, the working fluid must
exchange heat with the environment as well as the
furnace.

• Note that the impossibility of having a 100 percent

efficient heat engine is not due to friction or other
dissipative effects.

• It is a limitation that applies to both the idealized

and the actual heat engines.
 6–3 ■ HEAT ENGINES
• Work can easily be converted to other forms of
energy, but converting other forms of energy to work
is not that easy.
• Heat Engines convert heat energy into work
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clausius Statement
• It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a
lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body.
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
6–6 ■ REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

• Irreversible processes: The processes that were discussed at the

beginning of this chapter occurred in a certain direction.
• Once having taken place, these processes cannot reverse themselves
spontaneously and restore the system to its initial state.
• Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings.
• No real-world process is reversible
• Interest in these processes: (i) easy to analyze
• (ii) set theoretical limit for corresponding irreversible
• process (2nd law efficiency)

Sources of Irreversibilities:
1. Friction
2. Unrestrained expansion
3. Mixing of two fluids
4. Heat transfer across a finite temperature
difference
5. Electric resistance
6. Inelastic deformation of solids
7. Chemical reactions.
 6–7 ■ THE CARNOT CYCLE
• The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible
processes—two isothermal and two adiabatic—and it can
be executed either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion
2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression
4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression

• Area under curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas during the expansion
• Area under curve 3-4-1 is the work done on the gas
• The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the the net
work done during the cycle.

• If we acted stingily and compressed the gas at state 3 adiabatically

instead of isothermally in an effort to save QL, we would end up back at
state 2, retracing the process path 3-2. By doing so we would save QL,
but we would not be able to obtain any net work output from this engine.
 6–8 ■ THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES
1. The efficiency of an
irreversible heat engine is
always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same
two reservoirs.

2. The efficiencies of all

reversible heat engines
operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same.
6–10 ■ THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE
6–11 ■ THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP

• A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on the

reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a
Carnot heat pump.
Entropy Statement of the Second Law
• Unlike mass and energy, which are conserved, entropy is
produced (or generated) within systems whenever non-
idealities (called irreversibilities) such as friction are
present.

It is impossible for any system to operate in a

way that entropy is destroyed.
Entropy Balance
Conceptual Questions (CH # 6)
Conceptual Questions (CH # 6)
Conceptual Questions (CH # 6)
CH # 7: ENTROPY
Clausius inequality

Thus, value of the integral depends on the end states only.

therefore, integral represents the change in some property
of the system.
This property is entropy, the change in entropy is
given by
On a differential basis, the defining equation for entropy change takes the form

Entropy is an extensive property

Evaluating Entropy
Entropy balance in differential form
steady-state form of the entropy rate balance
 ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
• Entropy of a fixed mass can be changed by
• (1) heat transfer and (2) irreversibilities.
• Entropy of a fixed mass does not change during
a process that is internally reversible and
adiabatic

• A process during which the entropy remains

constant.
7–5 ■ PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
Isentropic Efficiency
Ideal-Gas Table for Isentropic Process

Relative Pressure
is solely a
function of
temperature

Relative Volume
Isentropic process and constant Specific
Heats
• END OF REVISION

• QUIZ#1 (MONDAY SEPTEMBER 2, 2019; 6:00 PM)