Learning

By
•Pushparaj singh
•Abhishek Chabbra
•Ankur KAwatra
 Behavioral Learning Theory

According to the behaviorists, learning can

be defined as “the relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about as a
result of experience or practice.”

Behaviorists recognize that learning is an

internal event. However, it is not
recognized as learning until it is displayed
by overt behavior.
 Behavioral Learning Theory

• The term "learning theory" is often

associated with the behavioral view.
• The focus of the behavioral approach is on
how the environment impacts overt
behavior.

• Remember that biological maturation or

genetics is an alternative explanation for
relatively permanent change.
 Behavioral Learning Theory

The behavioral learning theory is

represented as an S-R paradigm. The
organism is treated as a “black box.” We
only know what is going on inside the box
by the organism’s overt behavior.

Stimulus Organism Response

(S) (O) (R)
 Behavioral Learning Theory

The feedback loop that connects overt

behavior to stimuli that activate the senses
has been studied extensively from this
perspective.
 Behavioral Learning Theory

Notice that the behaviorists are only

interested in that aspect of feedback that
connects directly to overt behavior.

Behaviorists are not interested in the

conscious decision of the individual to
disrupt, modify, or go against the
conditioning process.
Learning Theory
 Behaviorism

 Social Learning Theory

 Behavioral Learning Theory

There are two types of behavioral learning

theories:

• Classical or respondent conditioning

theory
• Operant or instrumental conditioning
theory
 Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning was the first type of

learning to be discovered and studied within
the behaviorist tradition (hence the name
classical).
The major theorist in the development of
classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a
Russian scientist trained in biology and
medicine (as was his German contemporary,
Sigmund Freud).
 Classical Conditioning Theory
Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs
and became intrigued with his observation that
dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of
his assistants walked into the room.
He began to investigate this phenomena and
established the laws of classical conditioning.

Skinner renamed this type of learning

"respondent conditioning” since in this type of
learning, one is responding to an environmental
antecedent.
 Classical Conditioning Theory

• In the area of classroom learning, classical

conditioning is seen primarily in the
conditioning of emotional behavior.

• Things that make us happy, sad, angry,

etc. become associated with neutral
stimuli that gain our attention.
 Classical Conditioning Theory

Example:

• Child is harassed at school

• Child feels bad when harassed
• Child associates being harassed
and school
• Child begins to feel bad when she
thinks of school
Behaviorism
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner

The response is made first,

then reinforcement follows.
Behaviorism
 Learning is defined by the outward expression
of new behaviors
 Focuses solely on observable behaviors
 A biological basis for learning
 Learning is context-independent
 Classical & Operant Conditioning
 Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
 Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)
Behaviorism in the Classroom
 Rewards and
punishments
 Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely
with the teacher
 Lecture-based,
highly structured
15 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Social Learning Theory

• A learning theory that
takes into account the fact
that thoughts and feelings
influence learning.
• Necessary components
include
– Vicarious learning
– Self-control
– Self-efficacy

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16 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Insert Figure 5.3 here

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17 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Vicarious Learning
• Learning that occurs when one person (the learner) learns
a behavior by watching another person (the model)
perform the behavior.
• Conditions required for vicarious learning to take place:
– Learner observes the model when the model is performing the behavior
– Learner accurately perceives model’s behavior
– Learner must remember the behavior
– Learner must have the skills and abilities to perform the behavior
– Learner must see that the model receives reinforcement for the behavior
in question
• Learners can also learn from situations in which models
get punished.
• Role models can be positive or negative.
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18 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Self-Control
• Self-discipline that allows a person to learn to
perform a behavior even though there is no
external pressure to do so.
• Conditions indicating a person is using self-
control:
– Individual is engaging in a low-probability behavior
– Self-reinforcers are available to the learner
– The learner sets goals that determine when self-
reinforcement takes place
– The learner administers reinforcers when the goal is
achieved

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19 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Self-Efficacy
• A person’s belief about his or her ability to perform a
particular behavior successfully.
– Not the same as self-esteem
• Self-efficacy affects learning in three ways:
– The activities and goals that individuals choose for themselves
– The effort that individuals exert
– The persistence with which a person tries to master new and
sometimes difficult tasks
• Four sources of self-efficacy:
– Past performance
– Vicarious experience or observation of others
– Verbal persuasion
– Individuals’ readings of their internal physiological states
Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall
20 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Advice to Managers
➀ Make sure newcomers see good performers being positively reinforced for the
desirable behaviors they perform.

➁ Tell your subordinates who the particularly good performers are so your
subordinates will know whom to model.

➂ Do not closely supervise workers who engage in self-control.

➃ To boost and maintain high levels of self-efficacy, do the following:

a. Encourage small successes, especially for subordinates with low levels of

self-efficacy. Give them tasks that you are confident they can succeed at,
and progressively increase the difficulty of the tasks.
b. Let subordinates know that others like them have succeeded on especially
challenging projects.
c. Have high expectations for your subordinates, and let them know that you
are confident they can learn new and difficult tasks.

Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall

5 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Reinforcement
• Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that a
desired behavior will occur again in the future by
applying consequences that depend on the
behavior in question.
• Positive Reinforcement: The administration of
positive consequences to workers who perform
desired behaviors.
– Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards
• Negative Reinforcement: The removal of
negative consequences when workers perform
desired behaviors.
– Nagging, complaining
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6 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Reinforcement Schedules
• Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs
after every occurrence of a behavior.
• Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a
portion of the time that behavior
occurs.
• Differences:
– Continuous reinforcement can result in
faster learning of desired behaviors.
– Behaviors learned using partial
reinforcement are likely to last longer.
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7 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Reinforcement Schedules
• Fixed-Interval Schedule:
Schedule The period of time
between the occurrence of each instance of
reinforcement is fixed or set.
• Variable-Interval Schedule:
Schedule The amount of time
between reinforcements varies around a constant
average.
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule:
Schedule A certain number of
desired behaviors must occur before reinforcement
is provided.
• Variable-Ratio Schedule:
Schedule The number of desired
behaviors that must occur before reinforcement
varies around a constant average.
Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall
8 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Advice to Managers: Reinforcement

➀ Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviors or
close approximations of them.

➁ When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the right behaviors
to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve its goals).

➂ Because job performance is likely to vary across workers, administer

rewards so that high-performing workers receive more rewards than low-
performing workers.

➃ Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive

reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.

➄ Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to the behavior.

➅ Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available for
desired behaviors. Don’t just assume that they know.

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9 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Extinction and Punishment

• Extinction:
Extinction Removing a consequence that is
currently reinforcing an undesirable behavior
in an effort to decrease the probability that the
behavior will occur again in the future.
• Punishment:
Punishment Administering negative
consequences to workers who perform
undesirable behaviors in an effort to decrease
the probability that the behavior will occur
again in the future.
– Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges
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10 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

• These two concepts are often confused; however,
they differ from each other in two important ways.
• First difference:
– Punishment reduces the probability of an undesired
behavior.
– Negative reinforcement increases the probability of
a desired behavior.
• Second difference:
– Punishment involves administering a negative
consequence when an undesired behavior occurs.
– Negative reinforcement entails removing a negative
consequence when a desired behavior occurs.
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11 CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Advice to Managers: Punishment

➀ Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because
they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be
eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and
removing the reinforcer.
➁ When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate
undesired behaviors.
➂ When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why
they are being punished.
➃ Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment
for the individual in question.
⑤ Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately
after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.

Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall