ICITSS(IT) PROGRAMME OF ICAI

CPU & IT’S COMPONENTS

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

MISS DEEPA VERMA GROUP 2
MISS VARTIKA TIWARI ROLL NO 7- 12
(FACULTY ICITSS(IT) ICAI )
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to our teachers Miss Deepa Verma
and Miss Vartika Tiwari for their ingenious ideas, tremendous help and co-
operation .

I am extremely grateful to our FRIENDS who gave valuable suggestions and

guidance for completion of the project. The co-operation and healthy
criticism came handy and useful with them

Finally I would like to thank all the above-mentioned people once again.

GROUP 2
ROLL NO 7-12
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 INDEX
CPU , IT’S HISTORY AND FUNCTIONING…………………….1

 C.U ( Control Unit )&ALU (Arithmetic &Logic Unit)……………8

PRIMARY MEMORY OR MAIN MEMORY…………………….14

CACHE MEMORY AND FLASH MEMORY……………………19

REGISTERS AND VIRTUAL MEMORY……………………...…27

MICROPROCESSOR……………………………………………...33
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CPU , IT’S hISTOry aNd
FUNCTIONING

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CENTRAL POCESSING UNIT(C.P.U)
• CPU is the Heart and Brain of a Computer.
• It receives data as input.
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is Simply the central processor or
the processor where mostly calculation takes places .
• CPU is the main important part of Computer.

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 HISTORY OF CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
In 1940,Mathematicians:

• John Von Neumann

• J.Presper Eckert

• John Mauchly
Came up with the concept of the stored instruction digital computer
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the
first electronic general-purpose computer. ENIAC was designed by
John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the University of
Pennsylvania, U.S

ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed

EDVAC’s(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
construction and were joined by John von Neumann in a consulting
role. Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary rather than
decimal, and was designed to be a stored-program computer 7
• On 1970’s a component of mainframe computer known as CPU is a steel cabinet bigger than a
refrigerator full of circuit boards crowded with transistors.

• In 1971 the first microprocessor invented. The 4004 microprocessor.

• In 1972 The 8008 was the first of many 8- bit

microprocessors to fuel the home computer revolution

• In 1979, Intel delivered the 8088 and IBM engineers

used it for the first PC . From 8086

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FUNCTIONING OF CPU

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• Data is supplied to the computer through an input device.

• The data is then transferred to memory under the supervision of the

control unit.

• Each instruction is interpreted before execution

• Control unit informs the ALU of the precise operation to be performed

and Directs the transfer of operands to the ALU

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• The ALU then performs all calculations and comparisons needed

• And the results are then passed unto the memory unit, from there to the
output unit.

ARRANGEMENT OF COMPONENTS

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C.U ( Control Unit )
&
ALU (Arithmetic
&Logic Unit)
C.U (Control Unit )
� CPU is partitioned into Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
� The function of control unit is to generate relevant timing and control
signals to all operations in the computer.
� It controls the flow of data between the processor and memory and
peripherals

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FUNCTIONS OF CONTROL
UNIT
� The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored
program instructions.
� The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and main memory.
� The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit that which logical or
arithmetic operation is to be performed.
� The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units as well as
all peripherals and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.

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There are two major types of control unit.
� There are two major types of control unit.
� Hardwired Control : When the control signals are generated by hardware using
conventional logic design techniques like gates,flipflop,decoder and other digital
circuit .
� it has the advantage that it can be optimized to produce a fast mode of
operation
� Requires changes in the wiring among the various components
� Micro programmed Control : In the micro programmed organization the control
information is stored in a control memory.
� The control memory is programmed to initiate the required sequence of micro
operations
� In the Micro programmed control any required changes or modifications be
done by updating the microprogram in control memory.

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ALU (Arithmetic &Logic Unit)
� An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central
processing unit of a computer system. It does all processes related to
arithmetic and logic operations that need to be done on instruction words.
In some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is divided into the
arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
� The main functions of the ALU are to do arithmetic and logic operations,
including bit shifting operations. These are essential processes that need to
be done on almost any data that is being processed by the CPU

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 Arithmetic Operation
� The basic Arithmetic operation is calculation most operation.
� Arithmetic operation using for adding, subtracting.
� The computer uses binary code system to do arithmetic operations.

Logical Operation
• There are several logical operation. NOT and or NOT.
• Logical operation is performed on data it is called by data processing.
• To perform logical operation examples performed certain logical operation

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 PRIMARY MEMORY OR MAIN MEMORY
Directly or indirectly connected to the CPU via a memory bus.
Comprises of two buses: an address bus and a data bus.
The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number
called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data.
Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus.
Additionally, a memory Management unit (MMU) is a small device
between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address.

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Hardware Architecture
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RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY(RAM)
• A RAM memory chips is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of
transistors and capacitors.
• This is Read only memory
Whose main purpose is to
program and data while
they are in use.
• Generally used by manufacturers to store data and programs.

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TYPES OF RAM
• The RAM Chips are of two types:-
I. Dynamic RAM(DRAM)
A From of volatile memory which also require the stored
information to be periodically re-read and re-written , or
refreshed,otherwise it would be vanish.
II. Static Ram(SRAM)
A from of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that
it never needs to be refreshed.

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READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

• It performs only read function not write function .

• This is non-volatile in nature (contents remain even in absence of
Power.
• Usually, these are
Small amount of
Information for quick
Reference by CPU.

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CACHE MEMORY
AND
FLASH MEMORY
CACHE MEMORY :

• It is a storage buffer that stores the data which is used

often, temporarily and makes them available to at
fast rate
Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in
between RAM
and CPU
It increases the speed of processing
Cache Performance :
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory,
it first checks for a corresponding entry in the cache.
• If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache,
a cache hit has occurred and data is read from cache
• If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache,
a cache miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a
new entry and copies in data from main memory, then the request is
fulfilled from the contents of the cache.
• The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms
of a quantity called Hit ratio.
Types of Cache –

• Primary Cache –
A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache is
small and its access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
• Secondary Cache –
Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of
the memory. It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level
2 cache is also housed on the processor chip.
•
Fig 1:
Flash Memory:
• Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type
of nonvolatile memory that erases data in units
called blocks and rewrites data at the byte level. Flash
memory is widely used for storage and data transfer in
consumer devices, enterprise systems and industrial
applications. Flash memory retains data for an extended
period of time, regardless of whether a flash-equipped
device is powered on or off.
Flash memory advantages & disadvantages:
Flash Memory Advantages

• Non-volatile memory
• Easily portable (e.g. USB memory sticks, camera flash cards, etc.)
• Mechanically robust

Flash Memory Disadvantages fig 2

• Higher cost per bit than hard drives

• Slower than other forms of memory Limited number of write / erase cycles
• Data must be erased before new data can be written
• Data typically erased and written in blocks
Flash memory types:
• There are two type of flash memory:
• NAND Flash memory: NAND Flash memories have a different
structure to NOR memories. This type of flash memory is accessed
much like block devices such as hard disks. When NAND Flash
memories are to be read, the contents must first be paged into
memory-mapped RAM. This makes the presence of a memory
management unit essential.
• NOR Flash memory: NOR Flash memory is able to read individual
flash memory cells, and as such it behaves like a traditional ROM in
this mode. For the erase and write functions, commands are
written to the first page of the mapped memory, as defined in
"common flash interface" created by Intel.
 REGISTERS &
VIRTUAL MEMORY
REGISTER
Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU,
there are various types of Registers those are used for various
purpose. Among of the some Mostly used Registers named as
AC or Accumulator, Data Register or DR, the AR or Address
Register, program counter (PC), Memory Data
Register (MDR) ,Index register, Memory Buffer Register.

Fig: 1
Registers Perform:-

1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those
are given by the user and the Instructions those are stored into the Main
Memory will be fetch by using Registers.

2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the

Instructions means the Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find
out which Operation is to be performed on the Instructions.

3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And

Results those are produced by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory
and after that they are displayed on the user Screen.
Types: MAR(Memory
Address Register)

Program Counter

Accumulator
Register

Memory Data
Types of Register
Register (MDR)

Index Register

Memory Buffer
Register

Data Register
Virtual Memory:
Virtual memory is the feature of an operating system (OS). It is responsible for
memory management. In the Virtual Memory the Physical Memory (Hard Disk) will
be treated as the Logical Memory (random access memory (RAM)). Means with
the help of virtual Memory we can also temporarily increase the size of Logical
Memory as from the Physical Memory.

Fig: 2
Benefits of Virtual Memory:
1) Unused Address space: With the help of Unused Address Space a user can
execute any number of programs because all the actual Addresses will be treated
as the logical Addresses. All the Programs those are given by the user will be Stored
into the Disk Space and all the Programs will be Stored into the Physical Address
Space but they will treat as they are Stored into the Logical Address Space.

2) Increased degree of Multiprogramming: With the help of Virtual Memory we

can Execute Many Programs at a Time because Many Programs can be fit in the
Physical Memory So that More Programs can be Stored into the Memory but this will
not increase the Response Time of the CPU Means this will not affect on the
Execution of the Programs.

3) Decrease Number of I/O Operations: There will be less Operations those are to
be used for performing the Swapping of the Processes. All the Programs will be
automatically will be loaded into the Memory when they are needed.
MICROPROCESSOR
Overview
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on
a small chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit)
operations and communicating with the other devices connected to it.

Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.

ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received
from the memory or an input device. Register array consists of
registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L and accumulator. The
control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the
computer.

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Pictures

Fig:- 2
Fig:- 1

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How does a Microprocessor Work?

The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode,

and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a
sequential order. The microprocessor fetches those
instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is
reached. Later, it sends the result in binary to the output
port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing
functions. 40
Features of a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of any microprocessor −

 Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and results its low cost.

 Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.

 Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by using metal oxide semiconductor
technology, which has low power consumption.

 Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip in a number of
applications by configuring the software program.

 Reliability − The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence it is reliable.

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 Generation of Microprocessor
Name Date Clock Speed Data Width
8080 1974 2 MHz 8 Bits
8088 1979 5 MHz 8 Bits Bus, 16 Bits
80286 1982 6 MHz 16 Bits
80386 1985 16 MHz 32 Bits
80486 1989 25 MHz 32 Bits
Pentium 1993 60 MHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Pentium II 1997 233 MHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Pentium III 1999 450 MHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Pentium 4 2000 1.5 GHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Pentium M 2003 2.266 GHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Intel core 2006 2.33 GHz 32 Bits, 64 Bits Bus
Intel Pentium dual-core 2007 2.93 GHz 64 Bits
Intel core 2 2008 3.33 GHz 64 Bits
Intel core i3 2010 3.4 GHz 64 Bits
Intel core i5 2011 3.46 GHz 64 Bits 42
THANK YOU

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